Comparison Of Intelligence Systems

Oğuzhan Yetkin

In 2005, the European Union’s (EU) coordinator of counterterrorism policies quipped that: ‘You can’t get closer to the heart of national sovereignty than national security and intelligence services. Yet in Brussels we have these analysts working together for the first time’.1 Despite the inherent sensitivities that exist within the field, the EU has considerably increased its resources for intelligence sharing and analysis in the decade that followed this comment. Yet, this cooperation has largely gone unnoticed – within academia as well as in the public domain. This report analyses the organisation and process of European intelligence cooperation and the effect that this cooperation is having on European foreign policy. In the policy recommendations, it is argued that the EU intelligence system – following phases of boosting efficiency and legitimacy – should now be developed with an eye on the interaction between producers and consumers of intelligence.

At the state level, intelligence may help to save lives; at the international, it can provide, or be used to provide, the pretext to go to war, and hence cost lives (Gill & Phythian, 2006, p. 172). The events of the past decades – 9/11, Iraq 2003 and, most recently, the 7/7 bombings in London – indicate that intelligence structures and processes are still not error-free. Historically, intelligence has been subject to a particular group of insiders, and there is no denying that much intelligence work must take place in secret if it is to be of value. However, intelligence is too significant to be left to the spooks. Therefore this essay will analyze the importance of intelligence to International Security

In today’s world, intelligence service directors take an active role in the processes of foreign policy formulation. This new role has led intelligence services to transform themselves into structures that play a more active role in foreign policy decision-making processes, unlike the classical intelligence service activities whose scopes have long been limited to specified duties. Ali Burak Darıcılı explores the changing structure of global intelligence with the following concepts and terminology: technology-centered development, the increasing cyber espionage capacity of intelligence services, the developing relations between intelligence services and private intelligence companies, new-generation threats and risks that emerge with the rise of social media, open-source intelligence (OSINT) collection methods, and the concept of intelligence diplomacy.

I N TE L L I G E N C E AN D F O R E I G N P O L I C Y ; A CO M P A R I S O N O F B R I TI S H , A M E R I C A N A N D TU R K I S H I N TE L L I G E N C E S Y S TE M S A TH E S I S P R E S E N TE D B Y H A K A N F İ D A N TO TH E I N S TI TU TE O F E C O N O M I C S AN D S O C I A L S C I E N C E S IN P A R TI A L F U L F I L L M E N T O F TH E R EQ U I R EM EI 4 F O R TH E D E G R E E O F M A S TE R O F I N TE R N A TI O N A L R E L A TI O N S ISIS 'A 5 5 B i L K E N T U N I V ER S I TY M AY, 1999 I N T E L L I G E N C E A N D F O R E IG N P O L I C Y : A C O M P A R IS O N O F B R IT I S H , A M E R IC A N A N D T U R K IS H IN T E L L IG E N C E S Y S T E M S A T H E S IS P R E S E N T E D BY H A K A N F İD A N TO T H E IN S T IT U T E O F E C O N O M IC S A N D S O C IA L S C IE N C E S IN P A R T IA L F U L F I L L M E N T O F T H E R E Q U IR E M E N T S FO R TH E D EG REE OF M ASTER O F IN T E R N A T IO N A L R E L A T IO N S i.·. B IL K E N T U N IV E R S IT Y M A Y , 1999 - y '- ■.■.•MfAt GO Vn UL >П| Lb ^ ^^ 4 ' G O ® H 4 ) 1 c e rtify th a t I h a v e re a d th is th e s is a n d in m y o p in io n it is fu lly a d e q u a te , in s c o p e a n d q u a lity , a s a th e s is fo r th e d e g re e o n M a s te r o f In te rn a tio n a l R e la tio n s. A s st. P r o f M u s ta fa K ib a ro ğ lu (T h e s is S u p e rv is o r) I c e rtify th a t I h a v e re a d th is th e s is a n d in m y o p in io n it is fu lly a d e q u a te , in s c o p e a n d q u a lity , a s a th e s is fo r th e d e g re e o n M a s te r o f In te rn a tio n a l R e la tio n s . Aisst. P r o f N u r B ilg e C riss I c e rtify th a t I h a v e re a d th is th e s is a n d in m y o p in io n it is fu lly a d e q u a te , in s c o p e a n d q u a lity , a s a th e s is fo r th e d e g re e o n M a s te r o f In te rn a tio n a l R e la tio n s . > / la A s st. P r o f G ü lg ü n T u n a 111 ABSTR ACT O n e o f th e m a in a rg u m e n ts o f th is th e s is is th a t b e tt e r in te llig e n c e is n e e d e d fo r d e s ig n in g sound fo re ig n p o lic y . W h ile g o o d in te llig e n c e c a n n o t g u a ra n te e g o o d p o lic y , p o o r in te llig e n c e fre q u e n tly c o n trib u te s to p o lic y fa ilu re . T h e n , w h a t a re th e e s s e n tia ls o f g o o d in te llig e n c e ? H o w sh o u ld in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s b e o rg a n iz e d ? W h a t c a n b rin g a b o u t re lia b le in te llig e n c e ? To answ er th e s e q u e s tio n s tw o c o u n trie s th a t a re w id e ly a c k n o w le d g e d to in c o rp o ra te in te llig e n c e s u c c e s s fu lly in to fo re ig n p o lic y m a k in g a n d im p le m e n ta tio n , n a m e ly th e U K a n d th e U S , a re e x a m in e d in te rm s o f th e s tm c tu r e o f th e ir in te llig e n c e s y s te m s in s u p p o r t o f fo re ig n p o lic y . T h e re fo r e a n s w e rs to th e q u e s tio n s o f h o w th e ir s y s te m s a re o rg a n iz e d , o v e rs e e n a n d c o o rd in a te d a re s o u g h t in th is stu d y . T h e n a c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n th e U K a n d th e U S A , w h ic h a re a c c e p te d to h a ’>'e th e h ig h e s t s ta n d a rd in th is re s p e c t, a n d th e T u rk is h s y s te m is m a d e in o r d e r to s h o w d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e sy s te m s. At th e c o n c lu s io n , b a se d o n fin d in g s fro m th e c o m p a ris o n o f th e s y s te m s , re c o m m e n d a tio n s a re p ro p o s e d to c a p a b ilitie s . IV im p ro v e T u r k is h fo re ig n in te llig e n c e ÖZET B a şa rılı b ir d ış p o litik a iç in k a lite li v e g ü ç lü b ir is tih b a ra tın g e re k tiğ i b u te z in a n a a rg ü m a n la rın d a n b irid ir. İy i is tih b a ra t h e r z a m a n iç in iyi b ir d ış p o litik a y ı g a ra n ti e tm e z k e n , k ö tü is tih b a ra t s ık ç a y a n lış p o litik a ü re ti m in e s e b e p o lu r. O h a ld e iyi b ir is tih b a ra tın e s a s la rı n e le rd ir? N a sıl b ir is tih b a ra t y a p ıla n m a s ı b a ş a rılı b ir d ış p o litik a için g e re k li o la n istih b a ra tı ü re te b ilir? B u so ru la rı c e v a p la m a k için , istih b a ra tı d iş p o litik a d a b a ş a rılı b ir ş e k ild e k u lla n a n iki ü lk e n in , A m e rik a ve İ n g ilt e r e ’n in , is t ih b a r a t y a p ıla n m a la rı in c e le n m iş tir. B u ü lk e le rin is t ih b a ra t y a p ıla n m a la rın m ın n a sıl ö rg ü tle n d iğ i, k o o r d in e e d ild iğ i v e d e n e tle n d iğ in in c e v a p la rı a ra n m ış , d a h a s o n ra d a T ü rk is tih b a ra t s is te m iy le a ra la rın d a m u k a y e s e y a p ılm ış tır. S is te m le rin k ıy a s la n m a s ın d a n e ld e e d ile n v e rile rle d e T ü rk is tih b a ra t s is te m in in d a h a d a g e liş tirilm e s i iç in b a z ı ö n e rile r s o n u ç d a v e rilm iş tir. ACKNOW LEDGEM ENTS I w o u ld lik e to e x p re s s m y d e e p g ra titu d e to m y s u p e rv is o r A s s is ta n t P r o fe s s o r M u s ta fa K ib a ro g lu . W ith o u t h is e ffo rts a n d e n c o u ra g e m e n t th is th e s is w o u ld n o t h a v e b e e n c o m p le te d . H is k n o w le d g e a n d g u id in g in s ig h ts in to s tra te g ic s tu d ie s h a v e p ro v id e d m e w ith a n e w s o u n d p e rs p e c tiv e . 1 am a ls o g ra te iu l to A s s is ta n t P ro fe s s o r N u r B ilg e C ris s a n d A s s is ta n t P r o fe s s o r G u lg iin T u n a fo r e d itin g a n d m a k in g c o n s ta ic tiv e c o m m e n ts o n m y th e s is , a n d s ittin g o n m y ju r y . VI TA B LE O F C O N TEN TS: PAGE P R E L IM IN A R IE S i IN T R O D U C T IO N 1 C H A P T E R -1 7 W H A T IS IN T E L L IG E N C E ? 1.1 T Y P E S O F IN T E L L IG E N C E 11 1.1.1 S e c u rity In te llig e n c e 11 1 .1 .2 . F o re ig n In te llig e n c e 12 1.1 .3 M ilita ry In te llig e n c e 13 1 .1 .4 . E c o n o m ic In te llig e n c e 14 1 .1.5. C rim in a l In te llig e n c e 15 1.2. C O L L E C T IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E 16 1 .2 .1 . H u m a n In te llig e n c e (H u m in t) C o lle c tio n 16 1 .2 .2 . T e c h n ic a l In te llig e n c e C o lle c tio n 18 1 .2 .2 .1 . S ig n a ls In te llig e n c e (S IG IN T ) 18 1 .2 .2 .2 . Im a g e ry In te llig e n c e (I M IN T ) 20 1 .2 .3 . O p e n S o u rc e C o lle c tio n 21 1.3. A N A L Y Z IN G A N D D I S S E M IN A T IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E 22 1.4. C O V E R T A C T IO N 24 vn C H A P T E R 2- F O R E IG N P O L IC Y A N D IN T E L L IG E N C E 26 2 .1 T H E N E E D F O R IN T E L L IG E N C E IN F O R E IG N P O L IC Y 27 2 .1 .1 . F o re ig n P o lic y P ro c e s s a n d In te llig e n c e 28 2 .1 .2 . M o d e ls o f F o re ig n P o lic y M a k in g a n d In te llig e n c e 82 2 .1 .3 . F o re ig n P o lic y G o a ls a n d In te llig e n c e 29 2 .1 .4 . F o re ig n P o lic y Im p le m e n ta tio n an d In te llig e n c e 30 2 .2 . D E C IS IO N -M A K E R S A N D IN T E L L IG E N C E ; 32 2 .2 .1 . P e rs o n a lity a n d B a c k g ro u n d 32 2 .2 .2 . S e ttin g P rio ritie s 33 2 .2 .3 . U n d e rs ta n d in g th e W o rld o f In te llig e n c e 33 2 .2 .4 . P o litic iz in g in te llig e n c e 34 2 .2 .5 . L a c k o f c o o rd in a tio n 34 2 .2 .6 . U n d e re s tim a tin g th e In te llig e n c e P ro d u c t 35 2 .2 .7 . M e a s u re s o f E ffe c tiv e n e s s fo r In te llig e n c e 35 C H A P T E R 3 - T H E U .K . S Y S T E M 37 3 .1 . IN T E L L I G E N C E C O M M U N IT Y IN T H E U .K . 37 3 .1 .1 . S e c u rity S e rv ic e 38 3 .1 .2 . S e c re t In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e (S IS ) 39 3 .1 .3 . G o v e rn m e n t C o m m u n ic a tio n H e a d q u a rte rs (G C H Q ) 40 3 .1 .4 . D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e S t a f f (D IS ) 40 3 .2 . O V E R S IG H T A N D A C C O U N T A B I L T Y O F I N T E L L IG E N C E 41 C O M M U N IT Y v ia 3 .2 .1 . M in iste ria l C o m m itte e o n th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s 41 3 .2 .2 . P e rm a n e n t S e c re ta r ie s ’ C o m m itte e o n th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s 42 3 .2 .3 . T h e In te llig e n c e a n d S e c u rity C o m m itte e 42 3 .2 .4 . C o m m is s io n e rs 43 3 .3 . C O O R D I N A T IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E A N D P O L IC Y M A K IN G ; 44 3 .3 .1 . C e n tra l In te llig e n c e M a c h in e ry (C IM ) 44 3 .3 .2 . J o in t In te llig e n c e C o m m itte e (JIC ) 44 3 .3 .3 . In te llig e n c e C o o rd in a to r 45 3 .4 . 46 A N A N A L Y S IS O F T H E B R IT IS H IN T E L L IG E N C E S Y S T E M C H A P T E R 4 - T H E U .S . S Y T E M 50 4 .1 . IN T E L L IG E N C E C O M M U N IT Y IN T H E U .S . A 50 4 .1 .1 . C e n tra l In te llig e n c e A g e n c y (C IA ) 51 4 .1 .2 . N a tio n a l S e c u rity S e rv ic e (N S A ) 51 4 .1 .3 . D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e A g e n c y (D IA ) 52 4 .2 . O V E R S IG H T A N D A C C O U N T A B IL T Y O F I N T E L L IG E N C E 53 C O M M U N IT Y 4 .2 .1 . P r e s id e n t's F o re ig n In te llig e n c e A d v is o ry B o a rd (P F IA B ) 53 4 .2 .2 . P re s id e n t's In te llig e n c e O v e rs ig h t B o a rd ( lO B ) 54 4 .2 .3 . O ffic e o f M a n a g e m e n t a n d B u d g e t ( 0 M B ) 54 4 .2 .4 . T h e C o n g re s s 54 4 .2 .4 .1 .S e n a te S e le c t C o m m itte e o n In te llig e n c e (S S C I) 55 4 .2 .4 .2 .H o u s e P e rm a n e n t S e le c t C o m m itte e o n In te llig e n c e (H P S C I) 55 IX 4 .3 . C O O R D IN A T IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E A N D P O L IC Y M A K IN G 55 4 .3 .1 . T h e P re s id e n t 56 4 .3 .2 . T h e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il 56 4 .3 .3 . T h e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e C o u n c il (N IC ) 57 4 .3 .4 . 58 4 .4 . T h e N a tio n a l F o re ig n In te llig e n c e B o a r d (N F IB ) A N A N A L Y S IS O F T H E A M E R IC A N IN T E L L IG E N C E S Y S T E M 58 C H A P T E R 5 - T H E T U R K IS H S Y S T E M 64 5.1. IN T E L L IG E N C E C O M M U N IT Y IN T U R K E Y 64 5 .1 .1 . T h e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n (M İT ) 64 5 .1 .2 . T h e N a tio n a l P o lic e In te llig e n c e 67 5 .1 .3 . M ilita ry In te llig e n c e 67 5 .1 .4 . G e n d a rm e rie In te llig e n c e 68 5 .2 . O V E R S IG H T A N D A C C O U N T A B IL T Y O F T F IE IN T E L L IG E N C E 68 C O M M U N IT Y 5 .2 . C O O R D IN A T I N G I N T E L I ,IG E N C E A N D P O L I C Y M A K IN G 69 5 .3 .3 . T h e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il 69 5 .3 .4 . T h e G e n e ra l S e c re t a ria t o f th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il 69 5 .4 .5 . N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e C o o rd in a tio n C o m m itte e 69 C H A P T E R 6- C O M P A R IS IO N O F T H E S Y S T E M S 6 .1 . T H E M A IN D IF F E R E N C E S B E T W E E N B R IT IS H , A M E R IC A N A N D T U R K IS H S Y S T E M S 71 6 .1 .1 . S tru c tu re o f In te llig e n c e C o m m u n itie s 71 6 .1 .2 . F o re ig n In te llig e n c e W ith in th e In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity 74 6 .1 .3 . O v e rs ig h t a n d A c c o u n ta b ility o f In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity 75 6 .1 .4 . C o o r d in a tin g In te llig e n c e a n d P o lic y M a k in g 77 6 .2 . C O N C L U S IO N 78 B IB L IO G R A P H Y 83 XI IN T R O D U C T IO N : T h r o u g h o u t th e C o ld W a r, T u rk is h fo re ig n p o lic y w a s in s u la r a n d p a ss iv e . T u rk e y fo c u s e d its e n e rg y o n in te rn a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d s o u g h t to a v o id fo re ig n te n s io n s th a t c o u ld d iv e rt it fro m th a t g o a l. T h e r e fo re T u rk e y d id n ot need to c o lle c t fo re ig n in te llig e n c e in a n y s ig n ific a n t w a y . In s te a d it h e a v ily re lie d o n in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d b y N A T O a llie s. A fte r th e C o ld W a r T u rk e y s ta rte d to fo llo w a m o re a c tiv is t fo re ig n p o lic y . In j o in in g th e G u l f W a r c o a litio n , T u rk e y b r o k e se v e ra l y e a rs o f its lo n g -s ta n d in g sile n c e . S in c e 1993, T u rk is h fo rc e s m o n ito rin g , a n d re la te d have p a rtic ip a te d in num erou s p e a c e k e e p in g , peace o p e ra tio n s , in S o m a lia , B o sn ia , A lb a n ia , G e o rg ia , H e b ro n , K u w a it (th e U N Ira q -K u w a it O b s e rv a tio n M is s io n ), M a c e d o n ia , a n d P a k is t a n (tra in in g A fg h a n re fu g e e s o n m in e c le a rin g ). A s a re.sult o f a n o th e r T u rk is h in itia tiv e , s e v e ra l B a lk a n s ta te s a g re e d in S e p te m b e r 1 9 9 8 to se t u p a B a lk a n p e a c e k e e p in g fo rc e to b e d e p lo y e d in N A T O o r W E U led o p e ra tio n s s a n c tio n e d b y th e U N o r th e O rg a n iz a tio n fo r S e c u rity a n d C o o p e ra tio n in E u r o p e (O S C E ). T u rk e y a ls o p ro p o s e d a s im ila r fo r c e fo r th e C a u c a s u s a n d a n a v a l p e a c e k e e p in g fo rc e fo r th e B la c k S ea. In th e B a lk a n s , T u rk e y e s ta b lis h e d w o rk in g re la tio n s w ith all th e s ta te s o f th e re g io n . It d e v e lo p e d c lo s e tie s w ith A lb a n ia , M a c e d o n ia a n d B o s n ia . D is in te g ra tio n o f th e S o v ie t U n io n a llo w e d T u rk e y to e x p lo it o p p o rtu n itie s in th e re g io n . It h a s d e v e lo p e d c lo s e tie s w ith th e T u rk ic s ta te s o f th e fo rm e r S o v ie t U n io n . T u rk e y c a n n o t e x p e c t a c o n tin u a tio n o f in te llig e n c e - s h a rin g o f th e p a st. It n e e d s fo re ig n /s tra te g ic in te llig e n c e ta ilo re d fo r its fo re ig n , m ilita ry , a n d e c o n o m ic p o lic ie s . Is T u r k e y ’s c u rre n t in te llig e n c e s y s te m a b le to m e e t its a b o v e - m e n tio n e d n e e d s ? T h is s tu d y is a n a tte m p t to id e n tify th e p r o b le m s o f T u rk is h in te llig e n c e s tr u c tu re in te rm s o f p ro v id in g s u p p o r t fo r fo re ig n p o lic y d e c is io n - m a k in g b y c o m p a rin g it w ith th e U K a n d th e U S in te llig e n c e sy s te m s. In te llig e n c e is a re la tiv e ly n e w s u b je c t in a c a d e m ic c irc le s a lth o u g h it h a s b e e n p la y in g a g re a t ro le in in te rn a tio n a l a ffa irs a n d fo re ig n p o lic y . In te llig e n c e , th e re fo re , is d e s c rib e d as th e “ m is sin g d im e n s io n ” o f th e s tu d y o f in te rn a tio n a l re la tio n s . A m o n g in te llig e n c e d is c ip lin e s fo re ig n in te llig e n c e is p ro b a b ly th e b ro a d e s t c a te g o ry , in th a t it is re la te d to th e d e fe n s e o f a c o u n tiy a n d th e c o n d u c t o f its fo re ig n p o lic y . S u p p o rtin g d ip lo m a ts a n d fo re ig n p o lic y d e c is io n -m a k e rs is u s u a lly a p rin c ip a l m is s io n fo r fo re ig n in te llig e n c e . T h is s u p p o r t in c lu d e s p ro v id in g a d v a n c e w a rn in g o f d e v e lo p m e n ts in o th e r c o u n trie s th a t w ill o r c o u ld a fl'e ct a sta te 's in te re s ts . Such advance w a rn in g s g iv e p o lic y m a k e rs th e tim e to fra m e an a p p ro p r ia te re s p o n s e a n d , i f p o s s ib le , to a v o id c o n flic ts th a t m ig h t re q u ire th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e s ta te 's fo rc e s. F o re ig n in te llig e n c e c a n a ls o p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n th a t a s s is t p o lic y m a k e rs in d e te rm in in g w h ic h o f s e v e ra l d ip lo m a tic s te p s m a y b e m o st e ffe c tiv e . In te llig e n c e a ls o p la y s c ru c ia l ro le in m o n ito rin g o f tr e a tie s a n d o th e r a g re e m e n ts. O n e o f th e m a in a rg u m e n ts o f th is th e s is is th a t b e tt e r in te llig e n c e is n e e d e d fo r d e s ig n in g s o u n d fo re ig n p o lic y . W h ile g o o d in te llig e n c e c a n n o t g u a ra n te e g o o d p o lic y , p o o r in te llig e n c e fre q u e n tly c o n trib u te s to p o lic y fa ilu re . T h e n , w h a t a re th e e s s e n tia ls o f g o o d in te llig e n c e ? H o w sh o u ld in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s b e o rg a n iz e d ? W h a t c a n b r in g a b o u t re lia b le in te llig e n c e ? To answ er th e s e q u e s tio n s tw o c o u n trie s th a t a re w id e ly a c k n o w le d g e d to in c o r p o r a te in te llig e n c e s u c c e s s fu lly in to fo re ig n p o lic y m a k in g an d im p le m e n ta tio n , n a m e ly th e U K a n d th e U S , a re e x a m in e d in te rm s o f th e s t a ic tu r e o f th e ir in te llig e n c e s y s te m s in s u p p o r t o f fo re ig n p o lic y . T h e r e fo re a n s w e rs to th e q u e s tio n s o f h o w th e ir s y s te m s a re o rg a n iz e d , o v e rs e e n a n d c o o rd in a te d a re s o u g h t in th is stu d y . T h e n a c o m p a ris o n b e tw e e n th e U K a n d th e U S A , w h ic h a re a c c e p te d to h a v e th e h ig h e s t s ta n d a rd in th is re s p e c t, an d th e T u rk is h s y s te m is m a d e in o r d e r to s h o w d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e sy s te m s. A t th e c o n c lu s io n , b a se d o n fin d in g s fro m th e c o m p a ris o n o f th e s y s te m s , re c o m m e n d a tio n s a re p ro p o s e d to im p ro v e T u rk is h fo re ig n in te llig e n c e c a p a b ilitie s . T h e r e a re se v e ra l re a s o n s w h y th e U K a n d th e U S A a re c h o s e n fo r c o m p a ris o n w ith th e T u rk is h sy s te m . F irs t o f all, th e s y ste m s o f th e U K a n d th e U S A a re th o s e th a t a re m a in ly im ita te d a n d /o r fo llo w e d b y m a n y s ta te s in th e w o rld . S e c o n d ly , th e ty p e o f th e re g im e is im p o rta n t w h ile o rg a n iz in g s e c u rity a n d in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n s . T u rk e y 's re g im e , w h ic h is a p a rlia m e n ta ry d e m o c ra c y , is s im ila r to W e s te rn d e m o c ra c ie s . T h is is a n o th e r re a s o n w h y th e s e tw o c o u n trie s a re s e le c te d to c o m p a re w ith th e T u rk is h sy s te m . T h ird ly , it m ig h t b e s a id th a t th e U K a n d th e U S A h a v e se t s ta n d a rd s o f in te llig e n c e b o th in a c a d e m ic a n d p ra c tic a l se n se . T u rk e y h a s b e e n s u ffe rin g fro m fo re ig n p o lic y fa ilu re s . A n s w e rs to w h e th e r th o s e fa ilu re s c o u ld b e e x p la in e d b y th e la c k o f a n a p p ro p r ia te in te llig e n c e s y s te m th a t t h e w e s t o p e ra te s b y a re a ls o so u g h t. T h is s tu d y in c lu d e s six c h a p te rs . C h a p te r 1 (W h a t Is In te llig e n c e ? ) is an a tte m p t to p ro v id e th e re a d e r w ith a c o m p re h e n s iv e b u t b r i e f d e fin itio n a n d e x p la n a tio n o f in te llig e n c e a n d o f re la te d s u b je c ts. It a lso s h o w s h o w b ro a d th e in te llig e n c e d is c ip lin e is in c o n tra s t to p e rc e iv in g in te llig e n c e as a to o l o f “ d irty tric k s ” a n d s u b je c t o f sp y m o v ie s. T h e e n tire in te llig e n c e c y c le a n d ty p e s o f in te llig e n c e a re e x p la in e d in th e c h a p te r. T h u s th e r e a d e r w ill h a v e a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f in te llig e n c e rig h t fro m th e b e g in n in g o f th e th e s is . T h e re a re m a n y w e ll- w r itte n s o u rc e s o n th e su b je c t. In fo rm a tio n fro m m a jo r s o u rc e s a re c o m p ile d a n d re d e s ig n e d . C h a p te r o n e is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t sin c e th e re s t o f th e s tu d y is b u ilt a ro u n d th e te rm s p ro v id e d in th e c h a p te r. C h a p te r 2 (In te llig e n c e a n d F o re ig n P o lic y ) b a s ic a lly a im s t o e x p la in w h y g o o d in te llig e n c e is n e c e s s a ry to fo rm u la te a b e tte r fo re ig n p o lic y p e rs p e c tiv e . It s u m m a riz e s b rie fly th e im p o rta n c e o f in te llig e n c e fro m a th e o re tic a l in fo re ig n p o lic y p ro c e s s , in m o d e ls o f fo re ig n p o lic y m a k in g , in fo re ig n p o lic y g o a ls , a n d in fo re ig n p o lic y im p le m e n ta tio n . T h e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e p o lic y - m a k e r a n d in te llig e n c e is a lso d isc u s s e d . T h e fa c to rs in flu e n c in g d e c is io n -m a k e r s ’ a ttitu d e s to w a rd in te llig e n c e , su c h a s p e rs o n a l b a c k g ro u n d , le a d e rs h ip sty le , p o litic iz in g in te llig e n c e , a n d s e ttin g p rio ritie s a re e x p la in e d . C h a p te r 3 (T h e U K S y s te m ) a n d C h a p te r 4 (T h e U S S y s te m ) a re d e s c rip tio n s o f th e U K a n d th e U S sy s te m s. H o w th e s e tw o in te llig e n c e c o m m u n i tie s a re o rg a n iz e d , c o o rd in a te d a n d o v e rs e e n in o r d e r to s e rv e b e tt e r th e ir n a tio n a l d e fe n s e a n d fo re ig n p o lic y is e x p la in e d . C h a p te r 5 (T h e T u rk is h S y s te m ) d e a ls w ith th e T u rk is h in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity . T h e o rg a n iz a tio n s in T u rk is h in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity a re in tro d u c e d b rie fly to th e re a d e r u n d e r th e s a m e h e a d in g s in c h a p te rs 5 a n d 6. T h u s th e b a s ic in fo rm a tio n to c o m p a re th e s y s te m s is c o m p le te d b y th e d e s c rip tio n o f th e T u rk is h sy s te m . C h a p te r 6 (C o m p a riso n o f th e S y s te m s ) is n e w in th e fie ld . E v e n th e W e s te r n s o u rc e s la c k c o m p a ra tiv e in te llig e n c e stu d ie s . S tu d ie s o n c o m p a ra tiv e in te llig e n c e a re lim ite d o n ly to a rtic le s a n d c o lle c te d e ssa y s. H o w e v e r, n o n e o f th e m to u c h e s o n c o m p a ris o n o f th e T u rk is h in te llig e n c e s y ste m w ith a n y o th e r s ta te 's in te llig e n c e sy s te m . In th e firs t s e c tio n o f c h a p te r 6, th re e m a in a re a s o f d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n th e s y s te m s a re d is c u s s e d . F irs tly , s tr u c tu re o f in te llig e n c e c o m m u n itie s , s e c o n d ly th e p la c e g iv e n to fo re ig n in te llig e n c e w ith in th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity , and la s tly o v e rs ig h t and a c c o u n ta b ility o f in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity a re fo u n d to b e th e m a in d if fe r e n c e s b e tw e e n sy s te m s. C h a p te r 6 a lso in c lu d e s th e c o n c lu s io n o f th is stu d y . H a v in g e x p la in e d , d e s c rib e d a n d d is c u ss e d m a in c o n c e p ts (in te llig e n c e a n d fo re ig n p o lic y ) a n d s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m s (th e UK and th e US s y s te m s ), a t th e c o n c lu sio n , re c o m m e n d a tio n s d ra w n fro m th e c o m p a ris o n o f th e s y s te m s a re g iv e n to im p ro v e th e T u rk is h sy s te m . H o w th e T u rk is h in te llig e n c e s y s te m sh o u ld b e o rg a n iz e d in o r d e r to s e rv e b e tte r fo r th e n a tio n a l d e fe n s e a n d fo re ig n p o lic y is a ls o d isc u s s e d a t th e c o n c lu s io n . W ritin g a b o u t in te llig e n c e b e a rs d iffic u ltie s d u e to th e n a tu re o f th e b u s in e s s th a t in te llig e n c e in v o lv e s. M o s t o f th e in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n s c o n d u c te d in th e p a s t a re still k e p t in se c re c y . O n ly a sm a ll p e rc e n ta g e o f th e m is b e in g d e c la s s ifie d . S o u rc e s o n in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n s a re e ith e r d e c la s s ifie d in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s , su c h a s U ltra a n d M a g ic , o r th e c a se s th a t w e re a c c id e n ta lly p u b lic iz e d d u e to s c a n d a ls in v o lv e d s u c h a s in th e Ira n -C o n t ra A ffa ir a n d th e B a y o f P ig s. D a ily in te llig e n c e a n a ly s is a n d in te ra c tio n w ith in th e g o v e rn m e n t m a c h in e ry a re n a tu ra lly se c re t. T h e re fo re , w h ile in v e s tig a tin g th e in te llig e n c e s y s te m s o f th e s ta te s th is s tu d y fo llo w s th e d e s c rip tiv e m e th o d . T h e re a re v a s t a m o u n ts o f A m e ric a n a n d B r itis h s o u rc e s a s w e ll a s C a n a d ia n o n e v e ry a s p e c t o f in te llig e n c e . M o s t o f th e s o u rc e s a re so w e ll o r g a n iz e d a n d a n a ly z e d th a t a b e g in n e r d o e s n o t h a v e m u c h to a d d o n th e lite ra tu re . O n th e c o n tra ry th e n u m b e r o f o p e n s o u rc e s w e re n o t n e a rly e n o u g h fo r th e T u rk is h sy s te m . T h e re fo re , an a n a ly s is o f th e c o lle c te d in fo rm a tio n w a s n e c e ss a ry . H e n c e , m o st o f th e e m p h a s is w a s p la c e d in w ritin g th e c h a p te rs 5 a n d 6, w h ic h re q u ire d e x te n s iv e a n a ly s is. D u e to th e s e n s itiv ity o f th e s u b je c t, n a m e ly in te llig e n c e , a q u e s tio n m a y c o m e to o n e 's m in d i f a n y c la s s ifie d in fo rm a tio n is e v e r u s e d , e x p o s e d , s e a rc h e d o r p u t in to th e th e s is . N o c la s s ifie d m a te ria l is u s e d o r e x p o s e d in th is th e s is . O n th e c o n tra ry , th e fo re ig n o p e n m a te ria l a n d s o u rc e s w e re so a b u n d a n t th a t a p ro b le m o f s c a n n in g , re a d in g a n d d ig e s tin g th e s o u rc e s a ro u s e . CHAPTER 1 - W H A T IS IN T E L L IG E N C E ? H is t o r ic a l B a c k g r o u n d : In te llig e n c e w a s e a rly re c o g n iz e d a s a v ita l to o l o f s ta te c ra ft o f d ip lo m a c y o r w a r. W ritin g a lm o s t 2 5 0 0 y e a rs a g o , th e C h in e s e m ilita ry th e o r is t S u n T z u s tre s s e d th e im p o rta n c e o f in te llig e n c e . H is b o o k The A rt o f War g a v e d e ta ile d in s tru c tio n s fo r o rg a n iz in g a n e s p io n a g e s y s te m th a t w o u ld in c lu d e d o u b le a g e n ts a n d d e fe c to rs . E g y p tia n re c o r d s in d ic a te th e e x te n s iv e u s e o f sp ie s. H a n ib a l’s in v a s io n o f Italy (2 1 8 B .C .) d u rin g th e S e c o n d P u n i c W a r w a s b a s e d o n c a re fu l in te llig e n c e w o rk , w h ic h in c lu d e d le a rn in g e v e ry th in g p o s s ib le a b o u t th e p e rs o n a l tra its o f th e v a rio u s R om an c o m m a n d e rs . In te llig e n c e , h o w e v e r, w a s p ro p e rly o rg a n iz e d b y m le r s a n d m ilita ry c h ie fs d u rin g th e ris e o f n a tio n a lis m in th e 18 c e n tu ry a n d th e g ro w in g o f s ta n d in g a rm ie s a n d d ip lo m a tic e s ta b lis h m e n ts . In th e 19"’ c e n tu ry N a p o le o n 's s tra te g y a n d ta c tic s b e n e fite d fro m a c o m p a ra tiv e ly m o d e rn in te llig e n c e sy s te m . T h e s ig n ific a n t ste p in th e c re a tio n o f m o d e rn in te llig e n c e w a s th e in tro d u c tio n o f s c ie n tific m e th o d s o f in fo rm a tio n a n a ly sis fro m a w id e v a rie ty o f s o u rc e s . O n e o f th e first to d o th is w a s W ilh e lm S tie b e r, th e P ru s s ia n c h ie f o f in te llig e n c e u n d e r C h a n c e llo r O tto V o n B ism a rc . In te llig e n c e h a s b e n e fite d im m e n s e ly fro m te c h n o lo g ic a l p ro g re s s . I n t e llig e n c e a n d t h e A c a d e m ic W o r ld : A lth o u g h e s p io n a g e a n d a c tiv itie s o f s e c re t s e rv ic e s h a v e lo n g b e e n o f in te re s t to th e p u b lic a n d jo u rn a lis m , it is o n ly s in c e th e m id -1 9 7 0 s th a t th e y h a v e b e e n o b je c ts o f s y s te m a tic a c a d e m ic re s e a rc h . T h e s tu d y o f s e c u rity a n d in te llig e n c e h a s d e v e lo p e d a s a n in te r-d is c ip lin a ry field d r a w in g u p o n c o n trib u tio n s fro m h isto ry , p o litic a l sc ie n c e , law , p e a c e a n d d e fe n s e s tu d ie s a n d s o c io lo g y . T h e r e a re tw o m a in tra d i tio n s w ith in th e fie ld . O n e is th e h is to ric a l a p p ro a c h , w h ic h m a in ly d e a ls w ith th e ro le o f in te llig e n c e in tim e o f w a r, an d th e o th e r is th e p o litic a l s c ie n c e /in te rn a tio n a l re la tio n s c o n c e rn w ith in te llig e n c e p o lic y . T h e fo rm e r h a s b e e n d o m in a n t in th e U K w h ile th e la tte r h a s b e e n m o re in flu e n tia l in th e U S A .’ D u rin g th e p a s t 2 5 y e a rs, s e rio u s re s e a rc h h a s b e e n m a d e o n in te llig e n c e . E v e n tw o sc h o la rly le a d in g jo u r n a ls h a v e b e e n p u b lis h e d f o r th e la s t 10 y e a rs. Jnielligence an d National Security e d ite d b y C h ris to p h e r A n d re w a n d M ic h a e l H a n d e l, is o n e p rim a rily fo r h isto ria n s . 7'he International Journal o f Intelligence and Counterintelligence, e d ite d b y F. R e e s e B ro w n , is m o re fo r p o litic a l s c ie n tis ts a n d in te llig e n c e p ro fe s sio n a ls.^ In te llig e n c e s tu d ie s h a v e b e c o m e a re c o g n iz e d p a rt o f h is to ry a n d p o litic a l s c ie n c e c o u rs e s a t u n iv e rs itie s a n d c o lle g e s in th e U n ite d S ta te s , C a n a d a a n d B rita in . A t th e la s t c o u n t s o m e 1 3 0 o f th e m w e re id e n tifie d a t 107 in stitu tio n s . In B rita in , fo r in sta n c e , u n iv e rs itie s w ith in te llig e n c e c o u rs e s a n d o p tio n s in c lu d e K in g 's C o l le g e L o n d o n , C a m b rid g e , S a lfo rd , E d in b u rg , B irm in g h a m , A b e ry s tw y t, St. A n d re w s a n d A b e rd e e n .^ M e re d ith H in d le y , a P h D c a n d id a te a t A m e ric a n U n iv e rs ity , h a s c o lle c te d a lis t o f d is s e rta tio n s c u rre n tly b e in g d o n e o n in te llig e n c e s tu d ie s . S h e n o te s th a t " th e w o r k c u rre n tly b e in g d o n e b y g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts o n th e h is to ry a n d p ra c t ic e o f in te llig e n c e d e m o n s tra te s h o w fa r in te llig e n c e s tu d ie s h a s c o m e in th e p a s t 2 5 y e a rs ." '’ T h e list ' M ic h a e l H e n n a n , I n le llig e n c e P o w e r In P e a c e A n d JVar ( C a m b r id g e : C a m b r id g e U n iv e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 9 6 ) , pp. X I - X V . ^ E a r n e s t M a y , 'S t u d y in g im d T e a c l i i n g I n t e ll ig e n c e ' S tu d ie s in I n le llig e n c e v o l. 3 8 n o . 5 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , h t t p : //w w w .o d c i.g o v /c s i/s t u d ie s /9 5 im c la s /m a y .h t m ^ M ic h a e l H e r m a n , o p . c it ,. p . 2 . M e r e d it h H in d le y , 'F ir s t A n n u a l L is t o f D i s s e r t a t i o n s o n I n t e ll ig e n c e ' v o l . 13 n o . 4 (W in te r 1 9 9 8 ) , p . 2 0 8 . In te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l S e c u r ity c o n ta in s 5 4 e n trie s fro m six c o u n trie s . I f a m o re o rg a n iz e d a tte m p t h a d b e e n m a d e , th e n u m b e r o f e n trie s in th e lis t w o u ld h a v e b e e n m u c h m o re . A s u rv e y o f th e d is s e rta tio n s s u g g e s ts fo u r m a in a re a s o f in te re s t. F irs t, g ra d u a te s tu d e n ts a re ta k in g a c lo s e lo o k a t th e re la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n in te llig e n c e an d p o lic y m a k in g . S e c o n d , s o m e o f th e d is s e rta tio n s e x p lo re th e ro le o f s c ie n c e a n d te c h n o lo g y in a d v a n c in g in te llig e n c e g a th e r in g te c h n iq u e s a n d ra m ific a tio n s fo r fo re ig n p o lic y , m ilita ry p la n n in g , a n d c iv il-m ilita ry re la tio n s . T h ird , q u e s tio n s a re b e in g a sk e d a b o u t th e ro le in te llig e n c e p la y s in in flu e n c in g a g o v e rn m e n t's p e rc e p tio n s o f its a llie s a n d e n e m ie s , an d im p lic a tio n s fo r d ip lo m a tic a n d m ilita ry a ffa irs . F in a lly , s o m e s tu d ie s e x a m in e th e e ffe c ts o f c o lla b o ra tio n a n d c o m p e titio n b e tw e e n in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s a n d th e im p a c t o n th e s u c c e s s o f o p e ra tio n s .^ W h a t Is I n t e llig e n c e : D e fin itio n o f in te llig e n c e a n d re la te d te rm s a re im p o rta n t in o rd e r to p ro v id e a c le a r in tro d u c tio n to th e s u b je c t. O n e o f th e e x p e rts in th e field d e s c rib e s in te llig e n c e a s th e " in fo rm a tio n n o t p u b lic ly a v a ila b le , o r a n a ly s is b a se d a t le a st in p a rt o n s u c h in fo rm a tio n , th a t h a s b e e n p re p a re d fo r p o lic y m a k e rs o r o th e r a c to rs in s id e t h e g o v e rn m e n t. W h a t m a k e s in te llig e n c e u n iq u e is its u s e o f in fo rm a tio n th a t is c o lle c te d s e c re tly a n d p re p a re d in a tim e ly m a n n e r to m e e t th e n e e d s o f p o lic y m a k e rs .” *’ A n in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n is th e p ro c e s s b y w h ic h g o v e rn m e n ts , m ilita ry g ro u p s , b u s in e s s, s y s te m a tic a lly c o lle c t a n d e v a lu a te in fo rm a tio n and o th e r o r g a n iz a tio n s fo r th e p u rp o s e o f d is c o v e rin g th e c a p a b ilitie s a n d in te n tio n s o f th e ir riv a ls. W ith s u c h in fo rm a tio n , o r in te llig e n c e , a n ' I b id ,. M a k in g I n te llig e n c e S m a rte r: The F u tu re o f U.S. I n te llig e n c e R ep o rt o f a n In d ep en d en t T a sk F o rce S p o n s o r e d b y t h e C o u n c i l o n F o r e ig n R e l a t i o n s , w v v w .c o p i.c o m /a r t ic le s /l n t e lR p t /c f r .h t n il o rg a n iz a tio n c a n b o t h p ro te c t i ts e lf fro m its a d v e rs a rie s a n d e x p lo it its a d v e rs a rie s ' w eak n esses. In a b ro a d e r m e a n in g in te llig e n c e h a s to d o w ith c e rta in k in d s o f in fo rm a tio n , a c tiv itie s a n d o rg a n iz a tio n s : In te llig e n c e re fe rs to " in fo rm a tio n re le v a n t to a g o v e rn m e n t's fo rm u la tin g a n d im p le m e n tin g p o lic y to fu rth e r its n a tio n a l s e c u rity in te re s ts a n d to d e a l w ith th re a ts to th o s e in te re s ts fro m a c tu a l o r p o te n tia l a d v e rsa rie s ." ^ In te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s o r c y c le in c lu d e s c o lle c tin g , a n a ly z in g (e v a lu a tio n ) a n d d is s e m in a tin g (u tiliz a tio n o f) o f d a ta .** In te llig e n c e w o rk , in c lu d in g s p y in g , p ro c e e d s in a fiv e -s te p p ro c e s s . In itia lly , w h a t th e d e c is io n -m a k e rs n e e d to k n o w is c o n s id e re d , a n d re q u ir e m e n ts a re set. T h e s e c o n d s te p is c o lle c tin g th e d e s ire d in fo rm a tio n , w h ic h re q u ire s k n o w in g w h e r e th e in fo rm a tio n is lo c a te d a n d w h o c a n b e s t o b ta in it. T h e in fo rm a tio n m a y b e a v a ila b le in a n e w sp a p e r, ra d io b ro a d c a s t, o r o th e r o p e n s o u rc e ; o r it m a y b e o b ta in e d o n ly b y th e m o s t s o p h is tic a te d e le c tro n ic m e a n s , o r b y p la n tin g a n a g e n t w ith in th e d e c is io n -m a k in g s y s te m o f th e ta r g e t a re a . T h e th ird s te p is in te llig e n c e p ro d u c tio n , in w h ic h th e c o lle c te d ra w d a ta a re a ss e m b le d , e v a lu a te d , a n d c o lla te d in to th e b e s t p o s s ib le a n s w e r to th e q u e s tio n in itia lly a sk e d . T h e fo u rth s te p is c o m m u n ic a tin g th e p r o c e s s e d in fo rm a tio n to th e d e c is io n -m a k e r. T o b e u se fu l, th e in fo rm a tio n m u s t b e p re s e n te d in a tim e ly , a c c u ra te , a n d u n d e rs ta n d a b le fo rm . T h e fifth a n d c ru c ia l ste p is th e u s e o f in te llig e n c e . T h e d e c is i o n -m a k e r m a y c h o o s e to ig n o re th e in fo rm a tio n c o n v e y e d , th u s p o s s ib ly c o u rtin g ^ A b r a h a m N . S h u ls k y , S U en t W a rfa re: U n d e r s ta n d in g The W o r ld O f I n te llig e n c e ( N e w Y o r k ; B r a s s e y ’s , I n c . , 1 9 9 3 ) , p . 1. * A m o s K o v a c s , ‘U s in g I n te llig e n c e ’, In te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l S e c u r ity 145. 10 v o l. 12 n o . 4 (O c to b e r 1 9 9 7 ). p. d isa ste r; o n th e o th e r h a n d , a ju d g m e n t m a y b e m a d e o n th e b a s is o f in fo rm a tio n th a t p r o v e s in a c c u ra te . T h e p o in t is th a t th e d e c is io n -m a k e r m u st m a k e th e fin a l c ru c ia l ju d g m e n t a b o u t w h e th e r o r h o w , to u s e in fo rm a tio n su p p lie d . T h e in te llig e n c e p ro c e s s c a n fail a t e a c h o r a n y o f th e s e fiv e b a s ic s te p s .’ 1 .1 . T Y P E S O F IN T E L L IG E N C E : In te llig e n c e c a n b e d iv id e d in to tw o b ro a d c a te g o rie s ; th e firs t c a te g o ry is c la s s ifie d a c c o rd in g to th e fie ld in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s in v o lv e d : S e c u rity In te llig e n c e , F o re ig n In te llig e n c e , M ilita ry In te llig e n c e , C o m m e rc ia l/E c o n o m ic In te llig e n c e , and C rim in a l in te llig e n c e . T h e s e c o n d c a te g o ry is c la s s ifie d a c c o rd in g to th e m e th o d s th a t in te llig e n c e is c o lle c te d ; H u m a n In te llig e n c e , S ig n a ls In te llig e n c e , Im a g e ry In te llig e n c e , O p e n S o u rc e In te llig e n c e . 1 .1 .1 S e c u r it y I n t e llig e n c e : S e c u rity In te llig e n c e - s o m e p re fe r to call D o m e s tic In tellig en ce* '^- d e a ls w ith th re a ts to a sta te 's s e c u rity a n d in te re s t o rig in a tin g in te rn a lly . U s u a lly te r r o r is t a n d s p y in g a c t iv itie s in s id e th e h o m e la n d a re th e m a in a re a s of c o n c e rn fo r s e c u rity in te llig e n c e . C o u n te rin te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s th a t in c lu d e m e a s u re s to c o u n te r a n d p re v e n t e s p io n a g e a c tiv itie s ru n b y h o s tile s ta te s c o n s titu te a n im p o rta n t p a rt o f s e c u rity in te llig e n c e . M o s t o f th e d e v e lo p e d n a tio n s in th e w e s t h a v e s e p a ra te c o u n te rin te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n s , s u c h a s G e rm a n y 's B fV , U n ite d S ta te s ' F B I, G re a t B rita in 's ’ I b id ., p p . 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 . A b r a h a m N . S h u ls k y , o p . c i t ., p . 4 . 11 M I5 . C o u n te re s p io n a g e u tiliz e s s o m e o f th e s a m e m e th o d s a s e s p io n a g e itself. T h e b e s t m e th o d o f c rip p lin g a n a d v e rs a ry 's e s p io n a g e p ro g ra m is b y p la n tin g o n e 's o w n a g e n t (a " m o le " ) in to th e h o s tile e s p io n a g e o rg a n iz a tio n . A n o th e r s u c c e s s fu l p ra c tic e is to c a p tu re h o stile s p ie s a n d tu rn th e m in to " d o u b le a g e n ts" th a t c h a n n e l fa ls e in fo rm a tio n to th e ir o rig in a l e m p lo y e r s .” 1 .1 .2 . F o r e ig n I n t e llig e n c e : " F o re ig n in te llig e n c e " , a lte rn a tiv e ly n a m e d Slraiegic o r National In te llig e n c e , is d e fin e d as " in fo rm a tio n re la tin g to th e c a p a b ilitie s , in te n tio n s , or a c tiv itie s of g o v e rn m e n ts o r e le m e n ts th e re o f, fo re ig n o rg a n iz a tio n s , o r fo re ig n p e rso n s . fo re ig n F o re ig n In te llig e n c e u s u a lly e n c o m p a s s e s n a tio n a l s e c u rity , p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic a n d s o c ia l tre n d s in th e ta r g e t n a tio n . A m o n g in te llig e n c e d is c ip lin e s fo re ig n in te llig e n c e is p ro b a b ly th e b r o a d e s t c a te g o ry , in th a t it is re la te d to th e d e fe n s e o f a c o u n try a n d th e c o n d u c t o f its fo re ig n p o lic y in th e w id e s t se n se . S u p p o rtin g d ip lo m a ts a n d fo re ig n p o lic y d e c is io n -m a k e rs is u s u a lly th e p rin c ip a l m is sio n fo r fo re ig n in te llig e n c e . T h is s u p p o r t in c lu d e s p ro v id in g a d v a n c e w a rn in g o f d e v e lo p m e n ts in o th e r c o u n trie s th a t w ill o r c o u ld a ffe c t a s ta te 's in te re s ts . S u c h a d v a n c e w a r n in g s g iv e p o lic y m a k e rs th e tim e to fra m e a n a p p ro p r ia te re s p o n s e a n d , i f p o s s ib le , to a v o id c o n flic ts th a t m ig h t re q u ire th e in tro d u c tio n o f th e s ta te 's fo rc e s. F o re ig n in te llig e n c e c a n a ls o p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n th a t a s s is ts p o lic y m a k e rs II I b id ., p . B la ir S e a b o r n , ‘I n t e llig e n c e a n d P o lic j'; W h a t Is C o n s t a n t ? W h a t Is C h a n g in g ? ’ J u n e 1 9 9 4 . h ttp : //w \v w .c s is - s c r s .g c .c a /c n g /c o m in e n t /c o m 4 5 c .h t m l 12 C o m m e n ta r y N o: 45 in d e te rm in in g w h ic h o f s e v e ra l d ip lo m a tic s te p s m a y b e m o st e ffe c tiv e . In te llig e n c e a lso p la y s a c ru c ia l ro le in s u p p o r t o f m o n ito rin g tre a tie s a n d o th e r a g re e m e n ts . In s h o rt fo re ig n /s tra te g ic in te llig e n c e e n c o m p a s s e s tw o m e a n in g s : F irs t, th e c o lle c tio n , a n a ly sis a n d d is s e m in a tio n o f in fo rm a tio n a b o u t g lo b a l c o n d itio n s - e s p e c ia lly p o te n tia l th re a ts t o a n a ti o n ’s se c u rity , a n d s e c o n d , b a se d o n th is in fo rm a tio n , th e u s e o f s e c re t in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s to h e lp p ro te c t th e n a tio n a g a in s t h a rm a n d a d v a n c e its in te re s ts a b ro a d . 1 .1 .3 . M ilita r y I n t e llig e n c e : O b s e rv in g m ilita ry a c tiv itie s o f ta r g e t n a tio n s a s w e ll a s c o lle c tin g in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e ir m ilita ry fo rc e s tru c tu re , m ilita ry in te llig e n c e "c o u ld b e e ith e r ta c tic a l; re la tin g to th e d is p o s itio n o f th e e n e m y 's tr o o p s a n d e q u ip m e n t in th e fie ld ; o r s tra te g ic , re la tin g lo n g te rm -c a p a b ilitie s in th e lig h t o f to ta l m ilita ry s tre n g th a n d th e c a p a c ity to m a in ta in it."*^ T h e m is sio n o f m ilita ry in te llig e n c e e n c o m p a s s e s n o t o n ly w a rn in g o f a tta c k o n a sta te 's te rrito ry a n d in s ta lla tio n s , b u t a lso p ro v id in g in fo rm a tio n n e e d e d to p la n a n d c a rry o u t m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s o f all k in d s. S u p p o rtin g d e fe n s e p la n n in g is a n o th e r tra d itio n a l m is s io n o f m ilita ry in te llig e n c e . T h is m is s io n e n ta ils p ro v id in g in fo rm a tio n o n fo re ig n m ilita ry c a p a b ilitie s in o r d e r th a t d e fe n s e p la n n e rs s h a p e th e size, n a tu re , a n d d isp o s itio n o f m ilita ry fo rc e s. I t a lso in c lu d e s n e c e s s a ry in fo rm a tio n to g u id e m ilita ry r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t 13 a c tiv itie s and fu tu r e m ilita i7 I b id .. 13 a c q u is itio n d e c is io n s . It encom passes in fo rm a tio n a b o u t fo re ig n m ilita r} ' ta c tic s a n d c a p a b ilitie s , w h ic h c a n th e n b e u s e d to tra in a n d p r o te c t m ilita ry fo rc e s. 1 .1 .4 . E c o n o m ic I n t e llig e n c e : E c o n o m ic in fo rm a tio n in te llig e n c e in c lu d in g is d e s c rib e d as te c h n o lo g ic a l " p o lic y d a ta , o r c o m m e rc ia lly fin a n c ia l, re le v a n t e c o n o m ic p r o p rie ta ry c o m m e rc ia l and g o v e rn m e n t in fo rm a tio n , th e a c q u is itio n o f w h ic h b y fo re ig n s ta te s c o u ld e ith e r d ire c tly o r in d ire c tly , a s s is t th e re la tiv e p ro d u c tiv ity o r c o m p e titiv e p o s itio n o f th e e c o n o m y o f th e c o lle c tin g o rg a n iz a tio n 's c o u n try ." '^ E c o n o m ic in te llig e n c e is re la te d to th e " c a p a b ilitie s a n d in te n tio n s o f o n e 's c o m m e rc ia l riv a ls a n d c o m p e tito rs , o fte n to th e a c q u is itio n o f c o n fid e n tia l o r p ro p rie ta ry in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e ir s tra te g ie s , e .g ., b id in fo rm a tio n , p ro c e s s e s , fin a n c e s o r m a rk e ts ." T h is a c tiv ity fo c u s e s o n th o s e a re a s th a t c o u ld a ffe c t s ta te 's n a tio n a l in te re s ts , in c lu d in g th e e c o n o m ie s of fo re ig n c o u n trie s , w o r ld w id e e c o n o m ic tre n d s , and in fo rm a tio n to s u p p o rt tr a d e n e g o tia tio n s . W h ile m u c h o f th is in fo rm a tio n is a v a ila b le fro m p u b lic s o u rc e s , th e r e w e r e m a n y c o u n trie s w h e r e s u c h in fo rm a tio n w a s re s tric te d o r n o t re a d ily a v a ila b le . E c o n o m ic in te llig e n c e fille d a c o n s id e ra b le v o id . M o s t la rg e c o rp o ra te e n te rp ris e s to d a y h a v e d iv is io n s fo r s tra te g ic p la n n in g th a t re q u ire in te llig e n c e re p o rts . C o m p e titiv e e n te rp ris e s a re u n d e n ia b ly in te re s te d in th e p la n s o f th e i r c o m p e tito rs ; d e s p ite la w s a g a in s t s u c h p ra c tic e s , in d u s tria l e s p io n a g e is d if fic u lt to d e te c t a n d c o n tro l a n d is k n o w n to b e a n a c tiv e to o l to g a in s u c h fo re k n o w le d g e . M a n y 14 15 M ic h a e l H e r m a n , o p . c it., pp. 1 6 -1 9 . S a m u e l P o r te o u s , 'E c o n o m ic E s p io n a g e (II)' C o in m e tila r y , s c r s .g c .c a /c n g /c o m n ie n l/c o m 4 6 e .h t m l 14 N o ; 4 6 J u l y 1 9 9 4 . h t t p : //v v ’w w . c s i s - o f th e to o ls o f g o v e rn m e n t in te llig e n c e w o r k a re u s e d , in c lu d in g e le c tro n ic s u rv e illa n c e a n d a e ria l p h o to g ra p h ic re c o n n a is s a n c e . A tte m p ts a re e v e n m a d e to re c ru it d e fe c to rs . R e c e n t e x a m p le s o f a tte m p ts to o b ta in e c o n o m ic in fo rm a tio n a re a s fo llo w s ; in A p ril 1 9 9 3 , H u g h e s A irc ra ft d e c id e d n o t to p a rtic ip a te in th e B o u r g e t A irs h o w a fte r C IA w a rn e d th e p re s id e n t o f H u g h e s th a t h is c o m p a n y w a s o n a lis t o f 4 9 A m e ric a n c o m p a n ie s ta rg e te d b y th e F re n c h ; C h in a is re p o rte d to b e u s in g m e m b e rs o f v is itin g d e le g a tio n s an d e x c h a n g e s to c o n d u c t e c o n o m ic e s p io n a g e in th e U S A , C a n a d a a n d o t h e r d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s ; b u s in e s s tra v e le rs w e r e w a rn e d in 1 9 9 2 n o t to fly A ir F ra n c e a fte r it w a s d is c o v e re d th a t th e F re n c h in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e w a s b u g g in g a irlin e s e a ts an d u s in g u n d e rc o v e r a g e n ts to p o se a s a irlin e p a s s e n g e rs a n d flig h t a tte n d a n ts .’^ 1 .1 .5 . C r im in a l I n t e llig e n c e : C rim in a l in te llig e n c e a p p lie s to th a t w h ic h th e p o lic e s h o u ld k n o w in o r d e r to c o u n te r a n d a p p re h e n d th o s e e n g a g e d in o rg a n iz e d c rim e , s m u g g lin g , ex to rtio n ., te rro ris m a n d th e l ik e .’’ C rim in a l in te llig e n c e p la y s a m a jo r ro le in c o u n te rin g in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iz e d c rim e . In te llig e n c e fo c u s e s u p o n in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iz e d c rim e p rin c ip a lly a s a th re a t to d o m e s tic in te re s t, a tte m p tin g to id e n tify e ffo rts to s m u g g le a lie n s in to a s ta te 's te rrito ry , c o u n te rfe it c u rre n c y , p e rp e tra te fra u d o n fin a n c ia l in s titu tio n s , o r v io la te in te lle c tu a l p ro p e rty law s. I t a lso a tte m p ts to a ss e ss in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iz e d c rim e in te rm s o f its in flu e n c e u p o n th e p o litic a l s y s te m s o f c o u n trie s w h e re it o p e ra te s . S a m u e l P o r te o u s , 'E c o n o m ic E s p io n a g e ', C o m m e n ia ry , s c r s .g c .c a /c n g /c o n u n c n t /c o m 4 6 e .h t iT T l ” A b r a h a m N . S h u ls k y , o p . c it ., p p . 5 - 7 . 15 N o . 3 2 , 1 9 9 3 . h tt p : /A v w w .c s is - 1 .2 . C O L L E C T IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E T h e first p h a se o f th e in te llig e n c e c y c le is c o lle c tio n .'* A t th is p h a s e ta r g e te d d a ta a re c o lle c te d b y u s in g se v e ra l m e th o d s . T h e s e m e th o d s in c lu d e h u m a n in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n (H u m in t), te c h n ic a l in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n w h ic h h a s v a rio u s s u b fie ld s , an d o p e n s o u rc e c o lle c tio n 1 .2 .1 . 19 H u m a n I n te llig e n c e (H u m in t) C o lle c tio n H u m a n in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n , o r e s p io n a g e , is w h a t th e te rm " in te llig e n c e " is m o st lik e ly to b rin g t o m in d . A lth o u g h e s p io n a g e is o n ly o n e a s p e c t o f in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n s , it is a n im p o rta n t s o u rc e o f in fo rm a tio n fo r a n y g o v e rn m e n t a tte m p tin g to le a rn th e s e c re ts o f o th e r n a tio n s. Its e s se n c e is in id e n tify in g a n d re c ru itin g in to o n e ’s s e rv ic e s o m e o n e w h o h a s a c c e s s to im p o rta n t in fo rm a tio n a n d w h o is w illin g , fo r s o m e re a s o n , to p a s s it to o ffic e rs o f an in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e .^ ” T y p ic a lly , such p e o p le have access to th is in fo rm a tio n b y h o ld in g p o s itio n s o f tr u s t in g o v e rn m e n ts . In s o m e c a s e s (e s p e c ia lly in w a rtim e ), th e p e rs o n p ro v id in g th e in fo rm a tio n m a y n o t b e a g o v e rn m e n t o ffic ia l b u t a p r iv a te in d iv id u a l w h o h a s th e o p p o rtu n ity to o b s e rv e s o m e th in g o f in te re s t, su c h a s a s h ip 's a rriv a l in a n d d e p a rtu re fro m a h a rb o r. U s u a lly in d iv id u a ls in tw o d iffe re n t ro le s a re in v o lv e d ; a n in te llig e n c e o ffic e r, w h o is a n e m p lo y e e o f th e fo re ig n in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e , a n d th e s o u rc e , w h o p ro v id e s th e o ffic e r w ith in fo rm a tio n fo r tr a n s m is s io n b a c k to th e in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e 's h e a d q u a rte rs . T h e in te llig e n c e o ffic e r, o r " h a n d le r" m a in ta in s c o m m u n ic a tio n s w ith th e s o u rc e , p a s s e s A m o c s K o v a c s , o p . c i t ., p . 1 4 5 . ” A b r a h a m N . S h u ls k y , o p . c i t ., p . 1 1 . 16 o n th e in s tru c tio n s fro m th e in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e 's h e a d q u a rte rs , p ro v id e s n e c e ss a ry re s o u rc e s (su c h a s c o p y in g o r c o m m u n ic a tio n s e q u ip m e n t), a n d in g e n e ra l, s e e k s to e n s u re th e c o n tin u in g flo w o f in fo rm a tio n . E s p io n a g e is c h o s e n o v e r o th e r m e a n s o f in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n w h e n p h y sic a l a c q u is itio n o f a d o c u m e n t o r o b je c t is re q u ire d , o r w h e n o n ly a n o n -th e -s p o t o b s e rv e r c a n p ro c u re th e in fo rm a tio n d e sire d . E s p io n a g e m e th o d s a re g e n e ra lly th e s a m e w h e th e r c o n d u c te d fo r re a s o n s o f n a tio n a l s e c u rity , e c o n o m ic g a in , o r p o litic a l le v e ra g e . A g e n ts can in sta ll w ire ta p s or "b u g s" (c o n c e a le d m ic ro p h o n e s ), ste al, buy, o r tr a n s c rib e d o c u m e n ts , ste al e q u ip m e n t, o r sim p ly o b s e rv e w ith th e ir o w n e y e s. A g e n ts c o n v e y th e in fo rm a tio n th u s a c q u ire d to a p a re n t in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e b y ra d io , b y le a v in g th e in fo rm a tio n a t a "d ro p ," o r by h a n d -d e liv e ry e ith e r in p e rs o n o r th ro u g h a c o u rie r. T h e re a re se v e ra l ty p e s o f e s p io n a g e a g e n ts . T h e p ro fe s s io n a l sp y p o p u la riz e d in fic tio n is o fte n an " ille g a l" w h o p a s s e s h im - o r h e r s e lf o f f a s a fic titio u s p e rs o n c o m p le te w ith fo rg e d id e n tity p a p e rs. T h e " ille g a l" m a y w o rk a lo n e o r e s ta b lis h a sp y rin g . A n o th e r ty p e o f a g e n t is th e p a rt-tim e sp y w h o m a in ta in s a n o p e n , leg a l e x is te n c e (o fte n a s a d ip lo m a t o r b u s in e s s p e rs o n ) a n d c o n d u c ts e s p io n a g e o n th e sid e . A " p la n t" is a n a g e n t w h o is p o s itio n e d w ith in th e ta r g e t o r g a n iz a tio n fo r an e x te n d e d p e rio d o f tim e . T h e " in sid e r" o r " re c ru it" is a m e m b e r o f th e ta r g e t o r g a n iz a tio n w h o h a s sh ifte d lo y a ltie s a n d w h o p ro d u c e s in fo rm a tio n o n a re g u la r b a sis. H is to ric a lly , th e " in sid e r" is p ro b a b ly th e m o st p r o d u c tiv e ty p e o f a g e n t. " In sid e rs " c a n b e re c ru ite d b y id e o lo g ic a l a p p e a ls , b y o ffe rs o f m o n e y , o r b y b la c k m a il.^ ' M ic h a e l H e r m a n , o p . c it ., p p . 6 1 - 6 2 . I b id ., p p . 6 3 - 6 6 . 17 1 .2 .1 . T e c h n ic a l I n te llig e n c e C o lle c tio n A ll fo rm s a n d te c h n iq u e s o f in te llig e n c e a re n o w a id e d b y a n a c c e le ra tin g te c h n o lo g y o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d a v a rie ty o f c o m p u tin g and m e a s u rin g d e v ic e s . M in ia tu riz e d c a m e ra s a n d m ic ro film h a v e m a d e e a s ie r fo r p e rs o n s e n g a g e d in all fo rm s o f e s p io n a g e to p h o to g ra p h s e c re t d o c u m e n ts a n d c o n c e a l th e film s. S a te llite s a ls o h a v e a n e s p io n a g e fu n c tio n - th a t o f a e ria l p h o to g ra p h y fo r su c h p u rp o s e s a s d e te c tin g s e c re t m ilita ry in s ta lla tio n s . T h e v a n g u a rd o f th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts is h ig h ly s e c re t, b u t it is k n o w n th a t te l e p h o n e s c a n b e ta p p e d w ith o u t w ire s , ro o m s c a n b e b u g g e d (p la n te d w ith e le c tro n ic lis te n in g a n d re c o rd in g d e v ic e s ) w ith o u t e n try , a n d p h o to g ra p h s c a n b e m a d e in th e dark.^^ 1 .2 .2 .1 . S ig n a ls I n te llig e n c e ( S ig i n t ) S ig n a ls in te llig e n c e (S ig in t) is tra d itio n a lly c o n s id e re d to b e o n e o f th e m o s t im p o rta n t a n d s e n s itiv e fo rm s o f in te llig e n c e . T h e in te rc e p tio n o f fo re ig n s ig n a ls c a n p r o v id e d a ta o n a n a tio n 's d ip lo m a tic , sc ie n tific , a n d e c o n o m ic p la n s o r e v e n ts a s w e ll a s th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f ra d a r, s p a c e c ra ft a n d w e a p o n s s y s te m s . S ig in t c a n b e b r o k e n d o w n in to th re e c o m p o n e n ts; C o m m u n ic a tio n s in te llig e n c e (C O M IN T ), E le c tro n ic s in te llig e n c e (E L IN T ) a n d R a d a r in te llig e n c e (R A D IN T ).^ ^ A s its n a m e in d ic a te s , C O M IN T is in te llig e n c e o b ta in e d b y th e in te rc e p tio n , p ro c e s s in g , a n d a n a ly sis o f th e c o m m u n ic a tio n s o f fo r e ig n g o v e rn m e n ts o r g ro u p s , e x c lu d in g ra d io a n d te le v is io n b ro a d c a s ts . C o m m u n ic a tio n s m a y ta k e a v a rie ty o f fo r m s — Ş a f a k A k ç a , 'E le k t r o n ik İ s t ih b a r a t T e k n o l o j i s i ' , S tr a te ji A b r a h a m N . S h u ls k y , o p . c il., p p . 2 2 - 3 5 . 18 n o : 9 6 /1 , p p . 1 1 9 -1 2 4 . v o ic e , M o r s e c o d e , ra d io -te le ty p e o r fa c s im ile . C o m m u n ic a tio n s m a y b e e n c ry p te d , o r tra n s m itte d in th e c le a r. T h e ta rg e ts o f C O M IN T o p e ra tio n s a re v a rie d . T h e m o s t tra d itio n a l C O M fN T ta rg e t is d ip lo m a tic c o m m u n ic a tio n s — c o m m u n ic a tio n s fro m e a c h n a tio n 's c a p ita l to its d ip lo m a tic e s ta b lis h m e n ts a ro u n d th e w o rld . E le c tro n ic in te rc e p t o p e ra tio n s a re in te n d e d to p ro d u c e e le c tro n ic in te llig e n c e (E L IN T ) by in te rc e p tin g th e n o n - c o m m u n ic a tio n s ig n a ls o f m ilita i7 and c iv ilia n h a rd w a re , e x c lu d in g th o s e s ig n a ls re s u ltin g fro m a to m ic d e to n a tio n s. T h e e a rlie s t o f E L I N T ta rg e ts w e re W o rld W a r II air d e fe n s e ra d a r sy ste m s. T h e o b je c tiv e w a s to g a th e r e m a n a tio n s th a t w o u ld a llo w th e id e n tific a tio n of th e p resen ce and o p e ra tin g c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e r a d a r—in fo rm a tio n th a t c o u ld b e u se d to c irc u m v e n t o r n e u tra liz e th e ra d a r (th ro u g h d ire c t a tta c k o r e le c tro n ic c o u n te rm e a s u re s ) d u rin g b o m b in g ra id s. In fo rm a tio n d e s ire d in c lu d e d fre q u e n c ie s , sig n a l stre n g th s , p u ls e le n g th s a n d ra te s , a n d o th e r sp e c ific a tio n s . S in c e th a t tim e , in te llig e n c e , s p a c e tra c k in g , a n d b a llis tic m is sile e a rly -w a rn in g ra d a r h a v e jo in e d th e lis t o f E L I N T ta rg e ts . R a d a r in te llig e n c e —th e in te llig e n c e o b ta in e d fro m th e u s e o f n o n - im a g in g r a d a r— is s im ila r to E L IN T in th a t n o in te rc e p te d c o m m u n ic a tio n s a re in v o lv e d . H o w e v e r, R A D T N T d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n th e in te rc e p tio n o f a n o th e r o b je c t's e le c tr o n ic e m a n a tio n s . It is th e ra d a r w h ic h e m a n a te s e le c tro n ic s ig n a ls —ra d io w a v e s —a n d th e d e fle c tio n o f th o s e s ig n a ls a llo w s fo r in te llig e n c e t o b e d e riv e d . In fo rm a tio n th a t c a n b e o b ta in e d fro m R A D IN T in c lu d e s flig h t p a th s, v e lo c ity , m a n e u v e rin g , tra je c to ry , a n d a n g le o f d e s c e n t. T h e m o st s e c u re fo rm o f tr a n s m is s io n is th a t s e n t b y c a b le s , e ith e r la n d lin e s o r u n d e rw a te r c a b les . C o m m u n ic a tio n s o r o th e r s ig n a ls tr a n s m itte d th r o u g h s u c h c a b le s c a n n o t b e s n a tc h e d o u t o f th e air. In te rc e p tio n o f c a b le tra f fic h a s in v o lv e d p h y s ic a lly 19 ta p p in g in to th e c a b le s o r u s in g " in d u c tio n " d e v ic e s th a t a re p la c e d in th e p ro x im ity o f th e c a b le s a n d m a in te n a n c e o f e q u ip m e n t a t th e p o in t o f a c c e ss. T h is m ig h t b e u n o b ta in a b le w ith re s p e c t to h a rd e n e d a n d p r o te c te d in te rn a l la n d lin e s , th e ty p e o f la n d lin e th a t c a rrie s m u c h h ig h -p rio rity , s e c re t c o m m a n d a n d c o n tro l c o m m u n ic a tio n s. U n d e r s e a c a b le s a re m o st v u ln e ra b le s in c e th e m e s s a g e s tr a n s m itte d b y th e m a re th e n tra n s m itte d by m ic ro w a v e re la y o n c e th e c a b le re a c h e s lan d . A tre m e n d o u s v o lu m e o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s is s e n t v ia s a te llite s y s te m s . D o m e s tic a n d in te rn a tio n a l te le p h o n e m e s sa g e s , a n d m ilita ry a n d b u s in e s s c o m m u n ic a tio n s a re a m o n g th o s e re g u la rly tr a n s m itte d v ia s a te llite u s in g u ltra , v e ry , su p e r, a n d e x tre m e ly h ig h fre q u e n c ie s . B y lo c a tin g s a te llite d ish e s a t th e p ro p e r lo c a tio n s , an e n o rm o u s v o lu m e o f tra ffic c a n b e in te rc e p te d . G ro u n d sta tio n s th a t se n d m e s s a g e s to s a te llite s h a v e a n te n n a s th a t d ire c t th e s ig n a ls to th e s a te llite w ith g re a t a c c u ra c y ; s a te llite a n te n n a s , o n th e o th e r h a n d , a re s m a lle r a n d th e s ig n a ls th e y se n d b a c k to e a rth a re les s n a rro w ly fo c u s e d —p e rh a p s c o v e rin g se v e ra l th o u s a n d s q u a re m ile s. 1 .2 .1 .1 . Im a g e r y I n te llig e n c e (I M I N T ) Im a g e ry , o r IM IN T , is th e u s e o f s p a c e -b a s e d , a e ria l, a n d g ro u n d -b a s e d s y s te m s to ta k e e le c tro -o p tic a l, ra d a r, o r in fra re d im a g e s. T h e ra w d a ta fo r Im a g e ry In te llig e n c e is th e a e ria l p h o to s ta k e n b y U n m a n n e d o r M a n n e d A e ria l V e h ic le s , a n d s a te llite s . B o th th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d th e fo rm e r U S S R h a v e o rb ite d c o n s id e ra b le n u m b e rs o f re c o n n a is s a n c e s a te llite s fo r p h o to s u rv e illa n c e , e le c tio n ic in te llig e n c e , n u c le a r -e x p lo s io n d e te c tio n , an d 20 s tra te g ic -m is s ile la u n c h d e te c tio n . O th e r n a tio n s have a ls o la u n c h e d a fe w such satellites.^'* The advent o f th e re c o n n a is s a n c e s a te llite has re v o lu tio n iz e d c la n d e s tin e c o lle c tio n . In 1961 th e U n ite d S ta te s firs t o rb ite d its S a te llite a n d M is s ile O b s e rv a tio n S y ste m , a p h o to g ra p h ic -re c o n n a is s a n c e s a te llite a p p a re n tly d e s ig n e d fo r th e e x p re s s p u r p o s e o f lo c a tin g a n d m o n ito rin g S o v ie t in te rc o n tin e n ta l b a llis tic m iss ile (IC B M ) sites. S in c e th e n , th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d o th e r n a tio n s h a v e la u n c h e d p h o to re c o n n a is s a n c e s a te llite s o n a re g u la r b a sis. B y u s in g s a te llite s e n s o rs fo r m ic ro w a v e . X -ra y , a n d in fra re d w a v e le n g th s , v a lu a b le d a ta c a n b e o b ta in e d a b o u t la n d a n d s e a re s o u rc e s . S u c h s e n s o rs c a n d is tin g u is h b e tw e e n la n d a n d w a te r, c itie s a n d fie ld s, a n d c o rn a n d w h e a t a s w e ll a s b e tw e e n d is tre s s e d c o rn a n d v ig o ro u s corn.^^ 1 .2 .2 . O p e n S o u r c e C o lle c tio n ; O p e n S o u rc e In te llig e n c e (O S IN T ) is in te llig e n c e d e riv e d fro m p u b lic in fo rm a tio n o r in te llig e n c e w h ic h is b a s e d o n in fo rm a tio n w h ic h c a n b e o b ta in e d le g a lly fro m p u b lic s o u rc e s . In te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s h a v e a lw a y s m a d e e x te n s iv e u s e o f o p e n s o u rc e s fro m s tu d y in g fo re ig n p re s s to d e b rie fin g b u s in e s s m e n a n d to u ris ts a n d c o lla b o ra tin g w ith a c a d e m ic s a n d s c h o la rs. T h e o ffic ia l d e fin itio n o f O S IU T b y th e U .S . In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity p r o v id e s a b e tt e r a n d m o re d e ta ile d d e fin itio n . I b id ., p p . 2 2 - 2 8 . I b id ., “ I b id ., p p . 4 0 - 4 3 . 21 B y O p e n S o u rc e w e re fe r to p u b lic ly a v a ila b le in fo rm a tio n a p p e a rin g in p rin t o r e le c tro n ic fo rm . O p e n S o u rc e in fo rm a tio n m a y b e tra n s m itte d th ro u g h ra d io , te le v isio n , an d n e w s p a p e rs , o r it m ay b e d istrib u te d b y c o m m e rc ia l d a ta b a s e s , e le c tro n ic m ail n e tw o rk s , o r p o rta b le e le c tro n ic m e d ia su c h as C D -R O M 's . It m a y b e d is s e m in a te d to a b ro a d p u b lic , as a re th e m a s s m e d ia , o r to a m o re se le c t a u d ie n c e , s u c h a s g ra y lite ra tu re , w h ic h in c lu d e s c o n fe re n c e p ro c e e d in g s , c o m p a n y s h a re h o ld e r re p o rts , an d lo c a l te le p h o n e d ire c to rie s ...^ ^ T h e in fo rm a tio n re v o lu tio n a n d th e p r o life ra tio n o f m e d ia a n d re s e a rc h o u tle ts m e a n th a t m u c h o f a s ta te 's in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n ts c a n to d a y b e s a tis fie d b y a c o m p re h e n s iv e m o n ito rin g o f open so u rc e s . As th e v o lu m e and a v a ila b ility of in fo rm a tio n fro m " o p e n s o u rc e s " h a s m u ltip lie d as a re s u lt o f th e e v o lu tio n in in fo rm a tio n te c h n o lo g y , a s c e rta in in g w h a t re le v a n t in fo rm a tio n m a y b e o n p u b lic re c o rd h a s b e c o m e m o re d iffic u lt. W h ile th e u s e o f s e c re t in fo rm a tio n d is tin g u is h e s fin is h e d in te llig e n c e fro m o th e r a n a ly sis, n o a n a ly st c an e a se h is o r h e r c o n c lu sio n s s o le ly on s e c re t in fo rm a tio n w ith o u t c o n sid e rin g w h a t is o n p u b lic re c o rd (o p e n s o u rc e ). In d e e d , a n a ly s ts m u st h a v e c o m m a n d o f all re le v a n t in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e ir s u b je c ts, n o t s im p ly c o m m a n d o f s e c re t in fo rm a tio n . 1 .3 . A N A L Y S IN G A N D D IS S E M IN A T IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E A n a ly s is re fe rs to “ th e p ro c e s s o f tra n s fo r m in g th e b its a n d p ie c e s o f in fo rm a tio n th a t a re c o lle c te d in w h a te v e r fa s h io n in to s o m e th in g th a t is u s a b le b y p o lic y m a k e rs a n d m ilita ry c o m m a n d e rs . The R o b e r t D . S te e le , re s u lt, or 'in te llig e n c e p ro d u c t' can O p e n S o u r c e I n le llig e n c e P r o fe s s io n a l H a n d b o o k l.O , h ttp :w w w .o s s .n e t / p r o c e c d i n g s / 9 6 V o l l / A p p e n d i x _ A .h t m l , 1 9 9 6 . 22 ta k e th e fo rm of s h o rt m e m o ra n d u m s , e la b o r a te fo rm a l re p o rts , b rie fin g s o r a n y o th e r m e a n s o f p r e s e n tin g in fo rm a tio n .” ^’' T h e c o lle c tio n o f ra w in te llig e n c e is n o t a n e n d in i t s e l f O n c e in te llig e n c e h a s b e e n c o lle c te d , it is ty p ic a lly p ro c e s s e d , a n a ly z e d , an d re p o rte d b y a n a ly s ts a t th e c o lle c tin g a g e n c y w h o d e te rm in e its re le v a n c e to e x is tin g v a lid a te d re q u ire m e n ts . T h is "raw " o r " cu rre n t" in te llig e n c e is th e n re p o rte d e le c tro n ic a lly o r in p rin te d fo rm to th e c u s to m e rs a n d to th e a ll-s o u rc e a n a ly tic o rg a n iz a tio n s in th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity . T h e a ll-s o u rc e in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n s m e ld th e s e re p o rts w ith o th e r in fo rm a tio n a v a ila b le fro m o th e r in te llig e n c e a n d o p e n s o u rc e s a n d p ro v id e a n a ly tic s ta te m e n ts , a ss e ss m e n ts , a n d re p o rts o n th e s ig n ific a n c e o f th e in fo rm a tio n . S u c h a ll-s o u rc e a n a ly s e s m a y b e p e rfo rm e d o n to p ic s o f lo n g -te rm in te re s t an d b ro a d s c o p e , w h ic h a re c a lle d " e s tim a te s ," o r th e y m a y p e rta in to o n g o in g o r tra n s ie n t e v e n ts o f im m e d ia te in te re s t to p o lic y m a k e rs. C o m p u te riz e d d a ta s to ra g e s y s te m s a id g re a tly in b rin g in g to g e th e r th e re la te d p ie c e s o f in fo rm a tio n th a t m a k e u p a c o m p le te in te llig e n c e p ic tu re . H u m a n in tu itio n a n d c re a tiv ity p la y im p o rta n t ro le s in d e v e lo p in g th e " in fo rm e d g u e ss e s" th a t fill g a p s in th e p ic tu re . T h is p ro c e s s o f d ig e s tin g ra w in te llig e n c e , k n o w n as e v a lu a tio n , y ie ld s a p r o d u c t th a t is u s a b le b y p o lic y m a k e rs . I t is u p to th e p o lic y m a k e r to u tiliz e th e in te llig e n c e th a t h e o r sh e re c e iv e s in a tim e ly a n d re s p o n s ib le m a n n e r. In te llig e n c e a s s e s s m e n t m u s t b e p o lic y re le v a n t. In te llig e n c e d o e s n o t e x ist fo r its o w n sa k e ; it m u st b e re le v a n t to th e c o n c e rn s a n d p ro b le m s o n w h ic h d e c isio n a n d p o lic y m u st b e m a d e . P o lic y m a k e rs n e e d s u p p o rt fro m in te llig e n c e to h e lp d e a l w ith u n c e rta in ty . A n a ly s ts a n d th e ir a n a ly s is a re d e e m e d m o s t u se fu l w h e n th e y ; c la rify w h a t is k n o w n b y 28 A b r a h a m N . S h u ls k y , o p . c i t ., p . 4 5 . 23 la y in g o u t th e e v id e n c e a n d p o in tin g to c a u s e a n d -e ffe c t p a tte rn s ; c a re fu lly s tru c tu re a s s u m p tio n s a n d a rg u m e n ta tio n a b o u t w h a t is k n o w n an d u n k n o w a b le ; b rin g th e e x p e rtis e to b e a r fo r p la n n in g a n d a c tio n o n im p o rta n t lo n g -s h o t th re a ts a n d o p p o rtu n itie s . 1 .4 . 29 C O V E R T A C T IO N C o v e r t a c tio n is q u ite d iffe re n t fro m in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n a n d a n a ly s is. I t is a p a rt o f in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s, w h ic h is u s e d as a n in s tru m e n t o f fo re ig n p o lic y . S u c h a c tio n s se e k to in flu e n c e th e p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic o r m ilita ry s itu a tio n in a fo re ig n c o u n try w ith o u t re v e a lin g th e c o u n try th a t p la n te d th e c o v e rt a c tio n . C o v e rt a c tio n s u s u a lly ta k e p la c e in o n e o f th e fo rm s g iv e n b e lo w ; 1. P ro v is io n o f p o litic a l a d v ic e a n d c o u n s e l to le a d e rs a n d in flu e n tia l in d iv id u a ls in fo re ig n s ta te s. 2. D e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n ta c ts a n d re la tio n s h ip s w ith in d iv id u a ls w h o , th o u g h n o t in le a d e rs h ip o r in flu e n tia l p o s itio n s a t th e tim e , m ig h t a d v a n c e to su c h p o s itio n s . 3. P ro v is io n o f fin a n c ia l s u p p o rt o r o th e r a s s is ta n c e t o fo re ig n p o litic a l p a rtie s . 4. P ro v is io n o f a s s is ta n c e t o p riv a te o rg a n iz a tio n s su c h a s la b o r u n io n s , y o u th g ro u p s, a n d p ro fe s s io n a l a s so c ia tio n s . 5. P ro m u lg a tio n o f c o v e rt p ro p a g a n d a u n d e rta k e n w ith th e a s s is ta n c e o f fo re ig n m e d ia o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d in d iv id u a l jo u rn a lis ts . J a c k D a v i s ‘l l i c C h a l l e n g e o f M a n a g i n g U n c e r t a i n t y ; P a u l W o l f o w i l z o n I n t e l l i g e n c e P o l i c y - R e l a t i o n s ’ S tu d ie s in In fe l/ig e n a ; v o l T u r g u t D e ğ e r li, 3 9 n o . 5 , 1 9 9 6 . h t t p : / / w w v v .o d c i .g o v / c s i / s U i d i e s / 9 6 u n c l a s / d a v i s .h t m M illi G ü v e n lik S iy a s e ti ve S tr a te jis i, ( İ s t a n b u l ; S tr a te ji n o . 9 5 / 4 M e h m e t A la y , 'Ö r tü lü F a a li y e t le r K o n s e p t i' , A b r a h a m N . S h u ls k ) ', o p . c it ., p p . 8 3 - 1 0 9 . 24 H a r p A k a d e m ile r i B a s ım e v i, 1 9 9 6 ) , p . 8 0 , 6. E s ta b lis h m e n t o f re la tio n s h ip s w ith frie n d ly in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s to p ro v id e te c h n ic a l tra in in g a n d o th e r a ssista n c e . 7. P ro v is io n o f e c o n o m ic o p e ra tio n s b y w h ic h fin a n c ia l a s s is ta n c e c a n b e p ro v id e d to fo re ig n s ta te s fo r v a rio u s p u rp o s e s b u t c o n d u c te d th ro u g h in te rm e d ia te s o u rc e s n o t o v e rtly c o n n e c te d w ith th e p la n tin g sta te . 8. P ro v is io n o f p a ra m ilita ry o r c o u n te rin s u rg e n c y tra in in g to re g im e s fa c in g c iv il s trife w h e re a c k n o w le d g m e n t o f o ffic ia l in v o lv e m e n t is n o t d e sire d . 9. D e v e lo p m e n t o f p o litic a l a c tio n a n d p a ra m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s th a t a tte m p t to to p p le fo re ig n re g im e s a n d in sta ll s u c c e s s o rs m o re fa v o ra b le to th e s ta te p la n tin g c o v e rt a c tio n . In th e p a s t a n d still to d a y , c o v e rt a c tio n h a s a lw a y s b e e n th e w a y o f s ile n t w a rfa re b e tw e e n a d v e rs a ry c o u n trie s . C o ld W a r y e a rs w e re fu ll o f c o v e rt o p e ra tio n s . E v e n to d a y it is p o s s ib le to se e a c tiv itie s o f n a tio n s w h ic h fall in to o n e o f th e c o v e rt a c tio n s fo rm s g iv e n a b o v e . S y ria , fo r in s ta n c e , h a s b e e n s u p p o rtin g a n d tra in in g , P K K m ilita n ts in th e ir g u e rrilla w a r a g a in st T u rk e y . T h u s S y ria d o e s n o t p a y a h ig h c o s t w h ile u n d e rm in in g T u rk e y 's e c o n o m ic a n d p o litic a l s itu a tio n w h ic h is a v e ry im p o r ta n t fo re ig n p o lic y o b je c tiv e fo r S y ria . N o t o n ly S y ria b u t a lso a n u m b e r o f o th e r s ta te s s u c h a s G re e c e a n d Ira q h a v e a lle g e d ly b e e n u s in g P K K in th e ir c o v e rt a c tio n s . O p e ra tio n s o f T u rk is h s e c u rity fo rc e s h a v e re v e a le d tie s b e tw e e n P K K a n d s u p p o rtin g sta te s. 25 C H A P T E R 2- F O R E IG N P O L IC Y A N D IN T E L L IG E N C E F o re ig n p o lic y is a g o a l o r s e rie s o f g o a ls th a t a c o u n try h o p e s to a c h ie v e w ith re s p e c t to o th e r c o u n trie s a n d in te rn a tio n a l issu e s. S ta te s a re n o t th e o n ly a c to rs in in te rn a tio n a l p o litic s , a n d in c re a s in g ly a c o u n try 's fo re ig n p o lic y e x te n d s b e y o n d re la tio n s w ith o th e r c o u n trie s to in c lu d e in te ra c tio n s w ith o th e r in te rn a tio n a l a c to r s in c lu d in g in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s , m u ltin a tio n a l c o rp o ra tio n s , a llia n c e s , re g io n a l o rg a n iz a tio n s , a n d o th e rs. F o re ig n p o lic y a ls o in c lu d e s th e to o ls o r in s ta lm e n ts th a t a c o u n try e m p lo y s t o a c h ie v e its in te rn a tio n a l g o a ls . In su m , fo re ig n p o lic y in c lu d e s h o w a c o u n try d e c id e s , w h a t it d e c id e s , a n d h o w it a c ts. In te llig e n c e is in fac t e sse n tia l to th e m a in te n a n c e a n d e x p a n s io n o f p o litic a l (a n d m ilita ry ) po w er.^^ In p ra c tic e , in te llig e n c e ra re ly a ffe c ts th e d e te rm in a tio n o f p o lic y a lth o u g h it d o e s h a p p e n . F re q u e n tly , h o w e v e r, it d o e s a ffe c t th e e x e c u tio n o f p o lic y . T a c tic a l in te llig e n c e s u p p o rt a d d s to c e rta in ty a n d c o n fid e n c e in fo re ig n p o lic y e x e c u tio n ; it g iv e s im m e d ia c y , p ra c tic a lity , an d fo c u s to e x is tin g g e n e ra l c o n c lu s io n s . In te llig e n c e does not e x is t p u re ly fo r its ow n sa k e. In te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s (c o lle c tio n , a n a ly z in g , d is s e m in a tin g , c o u n te rin te llig e n c e ) a n d m a c h in e ry (o rg a n iz a tio n s ) e x is t to h e lp th e d e c is io n -m a k e r d e c id e b e tt e r in th e a re a in te llig e n c e is n e e d e d . In o th e r w o rd s , ta k in g th e n e c e s s a ry a c tio n is th e la s t ste p o f th e in te llig e n c e c y c le a lth o u g h it is n o t n a m e d in th e in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s list. F r e d e r ic S . P e a r s o n , I n le n ia lio n a l R e la t io n s : T h e G lo b a l C o n d it io n I n L a t e T w e n t ie t h C e n tu r y , ( N e w Y o r k ; M c G r a w - H ill) , 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 1 1 . M i c h a e l I. H a n d e l , IVar, S tr a te g y a n d I n te llig e n c e (L o n d o n : F ra n k C a ss , 1 9 8 9 ), p . 2 1 9 I b id ., p p . 1 8 8 - 2 2 0 . 26 N ational Security a n d Foreign Policy: N a tio n a l s e c u rity p o lic y o v e rla p s w ith fo re ig n p o lic y , s o m e tim e s e v e n th e y a re a lm o s t in d is tin g u is h a b le . H o w e v e r, n a tio n a l s e c u rity d iffe rs fro m fo re ig n p o lic y in a t le a s t tw o resp ects^^; (1 ) N a tio n a l se c u rity p u rp o s e s a re m o re n a rr o w a n d fo c u s e d o n s e c u rity an d s a fe ty o f th e n a tio n . (2 ) N a tio n a l s e c u rity is p rim a rily c o n c e rn e d w ith a c tu a l a n d p o te n tia l a d v e rs a rie s a n d th e ir u s e o f fo rc e . T h is m e a n s th e re is a m ilita ry e m p h a s is th a t is n o t u s u a lly th e c a s e in m a tte rs o f fo re ig n p o lic y . In s h o rt, fo re ig n p o lic y is o n e le g o f n a tio n a l s e c u rity th e o th e r o n e is n a tio n a l d e fe n s e . T h u s, n a tio n a l s e c u rity u s u a lly e n c o m p a s s e s all th e m a tte rs o f fo re ig n p o lic y . In te llig e n c e b o th s e rv e s n a tio n a l d e fe n s e and fo re ig n p o lic y . T h is m akes in te llig e n c e v ita l fo r n a tio n a l se c u rity , e sp e c ia lly d u rin g p e a c e tim e w h e n th e p rin c ip a l a rm o f n a tio n a l d e fe n s e , th e m ilita ry , is n o t in u se. 2 .1 . T H E N E E D F O R IN T E L L IG E N C E IN F O R E IG N P O L IC Y : In o r d e r to a d o p t a n d im p le m e n t fo re ig n p o lic y , to p la n m ilita ry s tra te g y a n d to o rg a n iz e a rm e d fo rc e s, to p a rtic ip a te in c o n d u c t d ip lo m a c y , to in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n n e g o tia te a rm s c o n tro l a g re e m e n ts , a c tiv itie s , n a tio n s have vast o r to in fo rm a tio n re q u ire m e n ts . A s a re s u lt o f th e s e re q u ire m e n ts m a n y g o v e rn m e n ts m a in ta in s o m e k in d o f in te llig e n c e c a p a b ility a s a m a tte r o f s u rv iv a l in a w o rld w h e re d a n g e rs a n d u n c e rta in tie s still e x is t. T h e c o ld w a r m ay h a v e e n d e d , b u t h o s tilitie s c o n tin u e in p a rts o f E a s te rn E u ro p e , th e fo rm e r S o v ie t U n io n , th e M id d le E a s t, a n d e lse w h e re . S a m C . S a r k c s ia n , U.S. N a tio n a l S e c u rity : P o lic y m a k e r s , P r o c e c e s e s , a n d P o litic s R i e n n e r P u b li s h e r s , I n c ., 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 5 . 27 (C o lo r a d o ; L y n n e O n e fu n d a m e n ta l re a s o n fo r th e e x is te n c e o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity is th e p u r p o s e o f re d u c in g u n c e rta in ty o n p o litic a l a n d m ilita ry issu e s. T h e m o re n a tio n s c a n re d u c e u n c e rta in ty a b o u t th e c a p a b ilitie s a n d in te n tio n s o f th e ir a d v e rs a rie s , th e m o re lik e ly th e y c a n a v o id c o n flic ts re s u ltin g fro m fe a r o f s u rp ris e a tta c k o r fro m o t h e r m ista k e s . F o re ig n /S tra te g ic in te llig e n c e , in s h o rt, c a n h a v e a s ta b iliz in g e ffe c t o n w o rld a ffa irs . C o n d u c tin g a n d a v o id in g d ip lo m a tic s u rp ris e a ls o re q u ire in te llig e n c e a n d c o u n te r in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s. 2 . 1 .1 . F o r e ig n P o lic y P r o c e s s a n d I n t e llig e n c e : T h e fo re ig n p o lic y p ro c e s s is h o w a c o u n tiy d e c id e s o n p o lic y a n d its im p le m e n ta tio n . P o lic y c h o ic e s a re in flu e n c e d b y w h o m a k e s d e c is io n s a n d h o w d e c isio n s a re m a d e . W ith in a p a rtic u la r ty p e o f g o v e rn m e n t, su c h as a d e m o c ra c y , th e re is n o s in g le fo re ig n p o lic y p ro c e ss , b u t ra th e r a v a rie ty o f p ro c e s s e s . T h e re a re se v e ra l e x p la n a tio n s a b o u t h o w a n d w h y th e p o lic y p ro c e s s v a rie s. T h e m o st c o m m o n is th e id e a th a t d iffe re n t ty p e s o f iss u e s a re p ro c e s s e d d iffe re n tly . O n e d is tin c tio n is b e tw e e n c ris is a n d n o n -c ris is p o lic y . C ris is p o lic y is n o rm a lly d e c id e d b y th e p o litic a l le a d e r (s u c h a s th e p re s id e n t o r p rim e m in is te r) a n d a sm a ll c irc le o f th e le a d e r's c lo s e a d v is o rs w ith little g e n e ra l d e b a te o r p u b lic d iss e n t. N o n -c ris is p o lic y is s u b je c t to w id e r d is c u s s io n a n d d is s e n t an d m a y e v e n b e d e c id e d b y lo w e r le v e ls o f th e g o v e rn m e n t.^ ^ In b o th c a s e s in te llig e n c e p la y s a v ita l ro le in p o lic y p ro c e s s . C ris is o r n o n -c ris is , a p o lic y c a n n o t b e e ffe c tiv e w it h o u t p r o p e r in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d in a tim e ly m a n n e r. M i c h a e l 1. H a n d e l , o p . c i t . , p . F r e d e r ic S . P e a r s o n , o p . c il., p p . 2 0 3 - 2 0 6 . 28 2 .1 .1 . M o d e ls o f F o r e ig n P o lic y M a k in g a n d I n t e llig e n c e : T h e re a re a n u m b e r o f m o d e ls o f th e fo re ig n p o lic y p ro c e ss . O n e o f th e m o st c o m m o n is th e " ra tio n a l-a c to r m o d e l." T h is m o d e l s u g g e s ts th a t p o lic y m a k e rs e x a m in e th e ir o p tio n s , d e fin e th e ir g o a ls , e x a m in e th e v a rio u s a lte rn a tiv e w a y s o f a c h ie v in g th e ir o p tio n s , an d s e le c t th e m o st e ffe c tiv e m e th o d to im p le m e n t th e c h o s e n policy .^* T h is m o d e l re q u ire s re lia b le in te llig e n c e . W ith o u t th e in te llig e n c e ra tio n a l a c to r m o d e l d o e s n o t w o rk p ro p e rly . A n o th e r v ie w is th e " b u re a u c ra tic m o d e l." H e re , v a rio u s p a rts o f th e e x e c u tiv e b r a n c h h a v e d iffe rin g v ie w s o f w h a t p o lic y s h o u ld b e. T h e s e v ie w s a re b a s e d , in p a rt, o n th e d iv e rg e n t, s e lf-in te re s te d g o a ls o f b u re a u c ra tic u n its . P o lic y , a c c o rd in g to th is m o d e l, is th e re s u lt o f th e s tm g g le a m o n g th e b u re a u c ra tic a c to rs.^ ’ S in c e th e n a tio n a l s e c u rity in stitu tio n s su c h a s m ilita ry a n d in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s a re p a rts o f th e b u re a u c r a tic m e c h a n is m , in te llig e n c e h a s a w o rd to say in th e b u r e a u c ra tic m o d e l to o . 2 .2 . F o r e ig n P o lic y G o a ls a n d I n te llig e n c e : T h e in te rn a tio n a l g o a ls th a t a c o u n try is try in g to a c h ie v e ra n g e fro m th e v e ry s p e c ific (re s o lv e a b o r d e r d isp u te ) to th e g e n e ra l (e n h a n c e th e c o u n try 's in flu e n c e ). In an in te rn a tio n a l s y s te m o f s o v e re ig n , o fte n c o m p e tin g , c o u n trie s , fo re ig n p o lic y g o a ls a re u s u a lly s e lf-in te re s te d o b je c tiv e s. L e s s fre q u e n tly , g o a ls m a y b e c o o p e ra tiv e a m o n g se v e ra l c o u n trie s (a llia n c e b e h a v io r) o r, still le s s o fte n , m o tiv a te d by id e a lis m (h u m a n ita ria n fo re ig n a id ). W h e n c o u n trie s p u rs u e s e lf-in te re s te d g o a ls , th e y a re sa id to J o h n S p a n ie r , G a m e s N a tio n s P la y s , ( W a s h in g t o n , D .C .: C Q P r e s s , 1 9 9 3 ) , p .6 4 7 . F r e d e r ic S . P e t e r s o n , o p . c i t ., p p . 2 2 0 - 2 2 . 29 b e fo llo w in g th e ir " n a tio n a l in te re s t." In p u rsin g n a tio n a l in te re s t p o lic ie s c o u n trie s h a v e v a s t in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n ts . T h e fo llo w in g lin e s e x p la in th e e le m e n ts o f n a tio n a l in te re s t. T h e c o re e le m e n t o f n a tio n a l in te re s t is n a tio n a l d e fe n s e p ro v id in g fo r th e p h y sic a l s a fe ty o f a c o u n try 's c itiz e n s. A s e c o n d e le m e n t is p ro v id in g fo r th e e c o n o m ic p r o s p e rity o f th e co u n ti'y in s o fa r as it is a ffe c te d b y th e su p p ly o f re s o u rc e s , tra d e b a la n c e s, m o n e ta ry e x c h a n g e ra te s , a n d o th e r fa c to rs o f th e in te rn a tio n a l p o litic a l e c o n o m y . A th ird e le m e n t o f n a tio n a l in te re s t is p ro v id in g a fa v o ra b le p o litic a l e n v iro n m e n t. A t a m in im u m th is in c lu d e s th e a b ility o f a c o u n try 's c itiz e n s to c h o o s e th e ir o w n fo rm o f g o v e rn m e n t, a n d it m a y a ls o in c lu d e p ro m o tin g v a lu e s (in d iv id u a l rig h ts ) a n d p ro c e s s e s (d e m o c ra c y ) in o th e r c o u n trie s th a t a re c o m p a tib le w ith o n e 's o w n v a lu e s a n d p ro c e s s e s . A fo u rth n a tio n a l in te re s t e le m e n t is e n s u rin g n a tio n a l c o h e s io n . T h is m e a n s a v o id in g fo re ig n p o lic ie s o r o th e r p re s s u re s (s e p a ra tis t m o v e m e n ts th a t th re a te n c iv il w a r), irre c o n c ila b le d o m e s tic d iv is io n s , o r o th e r c la s h e s th a t c o u ld fra g m e n t th e c o u n t r y . N o n e o f th e s e e le m e n ts o f n a tio n a l in te re s t c a n b e s a tis fie d w ith o u t p ro p e r in te llig e n c e a n d c o u n te r in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s. 2 .3 , F o r e ig n P o lic y l in p i c m e n t a t i o n a n d I n t e llig e n c e : C o u n trie s h a v e a v a rie ty o f in stru m e n ts b y w h ic h th e y c a n a tte m p t to a c h ie v e th e ir fo re ig n p o lic y g o a ls . T h e s e to o ls in c lu d e m ilita ry in s tru m e n t, p e n e tra tio n a n d in te rv e n tio n in s tru m e n t, d ip lo m a tic in s t a lm e n t an d c o v e rt o p e ra tio n s . T h e d e g re e to w h ic h a c o u n tiy c a n u s e an y o f th e s e in s tru m e n ts w ill v a ry a c c o rd in g to th e c o u n try 's p o w e r, w h ic h is •10 K .J . H o l s l i , I n te r n a tio n a l P o litic s: A F r a m e w o r k f o r A n a ly sis , 139. 30 (L o n d o n : P r c n t ic c /H a ll, 1 9 7 4 ) , p p . 1 3 6 - d e fin e d a s its a b ility to fo rc e o r p e rs u a d e a n o th e r c o u n try to a c t in a d e s ira b le w a y . A c o u n try m a y b e p o w e rfu l in s o m e w a y s a n d n o t in o th e rs . J a p a n h a s v a s t e c o n o m ic p o w e r a n d m u c h les s m ilita ry p o w e r. T h e fo rm e r S o v ie t U n io n h a d e n o rm o u s m ilita ry p o w e r a n d little e c o n o m ic p o w e r. T h e a p p lic a b ility o f p o w e r w ill a ls o v a ry w ith th e s itu a tio n . T h e m ilita ry in s tru m e n t re lie s o n th e im p lic it o r e x p lic it th r e a t to u s e fo rc e a n d th e a c tu a l u s e o f fo rc e . T h e p o s s e s s io n o f m ilita ry p o w e r is a ls o a to o l b e c a u s e it e n h a n c e s a c o u n try 's re p u ta tio n a n d in c re a s e s its in flu e n c e . D e sp ite its s ta g g e rin g e c o n o m y a n d p o litic a l d isa rra y , th e S o v ie t U n io n re m a in e d a s u p e rp o w e r b e c a u s e o f its m ilita ry c ap a b ility .'* ' C ro s s -b o rd e r in v a s io n is n o w le ss a c c e p ta b le b e h a v io r, a lth o u g h s o m e still ju s tif y th e a p p lic a tio n o f lim ite d fo rc e , e sp e c ia lly w ith in im p lic itly re c o g n iz e d s p h e re s o f in flu e n c e b y a m a jo r p o w e r (th e U .S . in c u rs io n s in to G re n a d a a n d P a n a m a , fo r e x a m p le ). P e n e tra tio n a n d in te rv e n tio n in v o lv e s try in g to m a n ip u la te a n o th e r c o u n try 's d o m e s tic p o litic a l s itu a tio n a n d p ro c e s s . T h is in s t a lm e n t c a n b e a c c o m p lis h e d th ro u g h m e th o d s as p ro p a g a n d a , m ilita ry s u p p o rt o f d is s id e n ts , c o -o p tin g su c h p o litic a l le a d e rs, s a b o ta g e , a n d te rro rism . The d ip lo m a tic in s tru m e n t in v o lv e s c o m m u n ic a tin g w ith a n o th e r c o u n try . M e th o d s in c lu d e d ire c t, g o v e rn m e n t-to - g o v e r n m e n t n e g o tia tio n s a n d p re s e n tin g its c a s e in th e a re n a o f a n in te rn a tio n a l o rg a n iz a tio n . T h e U n ite d N a tio n s , fo r e x a m p le , is th e fo ru m fo r d e b a te s a n d d ip lo m a tic m a n e u v e rin g o n a w id e v a rie ty o f iss u e s , a n d it h a s re n d e re d d e c is io n s (o fte n re je c te d o r ig n o re d ) o n m a n y in te rn a tio n a l d isp u te s . J o h n S p a n ie r , o p . c i t ., p p . 3 7 1 - 4 6 2 . 31 C o v e rt a c tio n , a s e x p la in e d in C h a p te r 1, is a p a rt o f in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s. F o re ig n in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s , p a rtic u la rly th e c o v e rt a c tio n s a re w id e ly c o n d u c te d b y c o u n trie s to im p le m e n t fo re ig n p o lic y . A s n o te d b y o n e o f th e e x p e rts in th e fie ld " ev e ry n a tio n w ith a c a p a c ity fo r c o v e rt a c tio n fin d s it a v irtu a lly irre s is tib le a lte rn a tiv e a t tim e s to m o re o v e rt in s tru m e n ts o f fo re ig n p o lic y , s u c h as o v e rt w a r a n d d ip lo m a c y . O p e n w a rfa re is a lw a y s to o n o isy a n d fo rm a l; d ip lo m a c y is o fte n to o slo w a n d f r u s tr a tin g ." ^ 2 .2 . D E C IS IO N -M A K E R S A N D IN T E L L IG E N C E : D e c is io n -m a k e rs u s u a lly h a v e little k n o w le d g e o f th e w h o le in te llig e n c e c y c le, e s p e c ia lly a b o u t th o s e w h ic h o c c u r b e h in d th e s c e n e s ; c o lle c tio n , e x p lo ita tio n , p ro c e ss in g , a n d e v a lu a tio n o f ra w data.''^ T h e re fo r e fro m th e p e rs p e c tiv e o f th e in te llig e n c e p ro fe s s io n a l, p o lic y m a k e rs u s u a lly d o n o t p a y n e c e s sa ry a tte n tio n th a t in te llig e n c e d e se rv e s. In fa c t s e v e ra l re a s o n s a re in v o lv e d in s h a p in g th e re la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n d e c is io n -m a k e rs a n d in te llig e n c e . 2 .2 .1 . P e r s o n a l i t y a n d L e a d e r s h i p S ty le ; T h e ty p e o f re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n in te llig e n c e an d d e c is io n -m a k e r is h e a v ily a ffe c te d b y th e m a n a g e m e n t sty le th a t s u rro u n d s th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity a n d th e w h o le g o v e rn m e n t m a c h in e ry . In a d e m o c ra tic s o c ie ty , fo r in s ta n c e , th e a tte n tio n th a t in te llig e n c e a ttr a c t s w o u ld b e m u c h m o re d iffe re n t fro m L o c h K . J o h n s o n , ‘ S tr a te g ic I n t e llig e n c e : A n A m e r ic a n P e r s p e c t iv e ’, in A . S tu a r t P a r s o n ( e d .) a n d I n te llig e n c e In A C h a n g in g W o rld: N e w P e r s p e c tiv e s F o r The 1 9 9 0 s (L o n d o n : F n u ik C a s s S e c u r ity 1 9 9 1 ), p. 60. K e v in S t a c k , 'C o m p e t it iv e I n t e llig e n c e ', I n te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l S e c u r ity p. 194. 32 v o l. 13 n o . 4 ( W in t e r 1 9 9 8 ) , th e o n e in a to ta lita ria n system.'*'* N o le a d e r is e x p e c te d to a c c e p t in te llig e n c e e s tim a te s w i th o u t first c o n s id e rin g th e ir re le v a n c e to h is /h e r p re fe rre d p o lic y o r stra te g y . H itle r o r S ta lin c o u ld n o t to le ra te in fo rm a tio n th a t c o n tra d ic te d th e ir o w n b e lie fs o r policies.'*^O n th e o th e r h a n d “ in te llig e n c e - b a s e d a c tio n is th e a n tith e sis o f le a d e rs h ip b y id e o lo g y .” '*** "It is p a rtic u la rly n o te w o rth y th a t m a n y p o lic y d is a s te rs h a v e o c c u rr e d w h e n in te llig e n c e w a s n o t c o n s u lte d . W h e n s ta te s m e n re ly so le ly o n th e ir o w n b e lie fs a b o u t e n v iro n m e n t th e y m a y s te e r th e sh ip o f s ta te s tra ig h t to w a rd a re e f, a s K e n n e d y d id in th e B a y o f P ig s a n d K h ru s c h e v d id 18 m o n th s la te r w h e n h e p la c e d m is s ile s in Cuba."'*^ 2 .2 .2 . S e t t i n g P r i o r i t i e s : D e c is io n -m a k e rs n e e d to se t c le a r fo re ig n p o lic y o b je c tiv e s a n d p rio ritie s . I f th e p rio ritie s o f p o lic y m a k e rs a re u n c le a r, th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity w ill b e u n c e rta in a b o u t w h a t it is e x p e c te d to d e liv e r a n d w ill e x e rt its e n e rg ie s to w a rd e ffo rts th a t m a y b e ig n o re d . In d e m o c ra c ie s , th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity d o e s n o t e x ist fo r its o w n sa k e. R a th e r it e x is ts to s e rv e to th e n e e d s o f d e c is io n -m a k e rs in th e ir d e c is io n m a k in g p ro c e ss . C o lle c te d in te llig e n c e o n c e d e liv e re d to th e d e c is io n -m a k e r, m ig h t b e a p a rt o f fo re ig n p o lic y o r m ilita ry issu e s. 2 .2 .3 . enough U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r l d o f i n t e l l i g e n c e : N a iv e p o litic ia n s o fte n d o n o t h a v e in fo rm a tio n on th e in te llig e n c e S e e f o r d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n M i c h a e l I. H a n d e l , c o m m u n ity ’s a c tiv itie s JVar, S tr a te g y a n d I n te llig e n c e and p ro d u c ts . (L o n d o n ; F r a n k C a ss, 1 9 8 9 ), pp. 2 8 3 -3 0 0 . I b id ., 46 M ic h a e l H e r m a n , o p . c it ., p . 1 3 8 R o b e r t J e r v is , 'S t r a t e g ic I n t e l l i g e n c e a n d E f f e c t i v e P o l i c y ’ , in A . S liia r t P a r s o n ( c d .) In te llig e n c e In A C h a n g in g W o rld: N e w P erspective.',· F o r T he 1 9 9 0 s 33 S e c u r ity a n d (L o n d o n : F r an k C a s s , 1 9 9 1 ), p. 1 69 . M is p e r c e i v in g th e in te llig e n c e w o rld le a d s th e p o lic y m a k e rs to sta y aw ay fro m e v e r y th in g th a t in te llig e n c e b u s in e s s in v o lv e s . T h u s th e y b e c o m e in e ffic ie n t in u s in g in te l lig e n c e in p o lic y m a k in g . 2 . 2 .4 . P o l i t i c i z i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e ; In te llig e n c e a s s e s s m e n ts m u st b e p o lic y neutral.'*^ T h e h a llm a rk o f in te llig e n c e is th a t it is b a s e d o n fa c t, k n o w le d g e a n d r ig o r o u s a n a ly s is to e x p la in a s o b je c tiv e ly a s p o s s ib le w h a t is h a p p e n in g a n d w h a t is lik e ly to h a p p e n in a n a re a o r s itu a tio n w h ic h re q u ire s th a t d e c is io n s b e ta k e n o r p o lic y m a d e . T h e p r o d u c t o f in te llig e n c e a n a ly sis m u s t p re s e n t th e s itu a tio n s a s o n e s e e s th e m , w it h o u t re g a r d to w h e th e r ju d g m e n ts w ill s u p p o rt o r c h a lle n g e d e c is io n -m a k e rs ' p e rc e p tio n s a n d th e e x is tin g policy.'*^ In te llig e n c e is u se fu l o n ly to th e e x te n t th a t p ro v id e s o b je c tiv e v a lu e . N o t o n ly th e a ttitu d e o f d e c is io n - m a k e rs c a u s e p o litic iz a tio n o f in te llig e n c e , c o m p e titio n am ong d iff e re n t in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s w ith in th e g o v e rn m e n t m ay a ls o p o litic iz e in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s , p ro d u c ts , a n d u se. 2 . 2 .5 . th e ir L a c k o f c o o r d i n a t i o n : P o lic y m a k e rs s o m e tim e s fa il to c o m m u n ic a te e ffe c tiv e ly needs to th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity and g e n e ra l ly m ake p o o r u se o f th e in te llig e n c e . A lth o u g h it is n o t d ire c tly re la te d to th e p e rs o n a lity o f th e p o lic y m a k e r, a s tro n g a n d e ffe c tiv e c o o rd in a tio n b e tw e e n th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity a n d o ffic e o f th e p o lic y -m a k e r is e s s e n tia l fo r b e tt e r d e c isio n m a k in g . T h e d e c is io n -m a k e r, th e re fo re , s h o u ld p a y a tte n tio n t o b e tt e r c o o rd in a tio n . <18 B la ir S e a b o r n , ‘ I n lc llig c n c e a n d P o lic y ; W h a l I s C o n s la n l? W h a l Is C h a n g in g ? ’ June 1994. 34 C o m m e n ta ry , N o :4 5 , 2 .2 .7 . U n d e r e s t i m a t i n g t h e i n te lli g e n c e p r o d u c t : S o m e p o lic y m a k e rs te n d to h e a v ily re ly o n th e ir o w n a n a ly sis a n d ju d g m e n t w h ils t th e fin is h e d in te llig e n c e p ro d u c t is w a itin g fo r a tte n tio n in a g iv e n s itu a tio n . O n e o f th e re a s o n s w h y p o lic y m a k e rs p a y little a tte n tio n is th a t th e y th in k th e ir o w n g e n e ra l k n o w le d g e o f th e s itu a tio n p r o v id e s a n a d e q u a te b a s is fo r th e ir d e c isio n s .^ ’’ 2 .2 .8 . M e a su re s o f E f f e c tiv e n e s s fo r I n t e l li g e n c e : C an a p o lic y -m a k e r m e a s u re e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f in te llig e n c e ? T h is q u e s tio n is p a rtic u la rly im p o r ta n t s in c e th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity n e e d s c le a r p o lic y g u id a n c e a n d fe e d b a c k fro m th e p o lic y -m a k e rs . A n e x p e rt o n th e s u b je c t a n s w e rs th is q u e s tio n a s fo llo w s; In te llig e n c e is d e e m e d e ff e c tiv e w h e n ; 1.C a u s in g a c o m m a n d e r o r d e c i s io n - m a k e r to c h a n g e a p re v io u s ly c h o s e n p o lic y o r c o u rs e o f a c tio n . 2. E n a b lin g a d iffe re n t (h o p e fu lly b e tte r) e x e c u tio n o f a c h o s e n p o lic y o r c o u rs e o f a c tio n . 3. P la y in g a p iv o ta l ro le in th e d e c is io n -m a k in g p ro c e s s (in th e s e n se th a t h a d th is in te llig e n c e n o t b e e n a v a ila b le , a d iffe re n t d e c isio n w o u ld h a v e b e e n re a c h e d .) 4. F o rc in g th e a d v e rs a ry to c h a n g e o r m o d ify th e e x e c u tio n o f h is p o lic y o r c o u rs e o f a c tio n ; 5. E n h a n c in g th e e ffe c ts o f o u r o w n c h o s e n p o lic y o r d im in is h in g a d v e rs e e ffe c ts o f th e e n e m y 's a c tio n s .^ ' S u m m a i'y : C h a p te r 2 b a s ic a lly a im s to e x p la in w h y g o o d in te llig e n c e is n e c e s s a ry t o fo rm u la te a b e tt e r fo re ig n p o lic y fro m a th e o re tic a l p e rs p e c tiv e . It s u m m a riz e s b rie fly th e im p o rta n c e o f in te llig e n c e in fo re ig n p o lic y p ro c e s s , in m o d e ls o f fo re ig n p o lic y m a k in g , in fo re ig n p o lic y g o a ls , a n d in fo re ig n p o lic y im p le m e n ta tio n . T h e re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n th e p o lic y - H a s a n K o n i, ‘ İ s t ih b a r a t P a z a r la m a v e D ı ş P o l i t i k a ’, / l w w v a D osyası v o l. 2 n o . 1 (s u m m e r 1 9 9 5 ) R o b e r t J e r v is , o p . c it ., p . 1 7 2 . A m o s K o v a c s , ‘U s in g I n te llig e n c e ’, I n te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l S e c u r ity 35 v o l. 12 n o . 4 (O c to b e r 1 9 9 7 ) m aker and in te llig e n c e is a ls o d isc u s s e d . T he fa c to rs in flu e n c in g d e c is io n - m a k e r s ’ a ttitu d e s to w a rd in te llig e n c e , s u c h a s p e rs o n a l b a c k g ro u n d , le a d e rs h ip sty le, p o litic iz in g in te llig e n c e , a n d s e ttin g p rio ritie s a re e x p la in e d . H a v in g e x p la in e d , d e s c rib e d a n d d is c u s s e d m a in c o n c e p ts in C h a p te rs 1 a n d 2 (in te llig e n c e a n d fo re ig n p o lic y ), n o w a n in tro d u c tio n t o s u c c e s s fu l s y s te m s (th e U K a n d th e U S s y s te m s ), c a n b e m a d e . T h e fo llo w in g c h a p te rs w ill in v e s tig a te th e B r itis h a n d A m e ric a n in te llig e n c e sy s te m s . 36 C H A P T E R 3 - T H E B R IT IS H S Y S T E M 3 .1 . I N T E L L I G E N C E C O M M U N I T Y IN U K B ritis h G o v e rn m e n ts h a v e lo n g re fu s e d to a c k n o w le d g e th a t th e y h a v e fo re ig n e s p io n a g e s e r v i c e s / ^ O n ly th e 1 9 9 4 In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s A c t p la c in g th e fu n c tio n s o f th e S e c re t In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e (S IS ) a n d G o v e rn m e n t C o m m u n ic a tio n s H e a d q u a r te r s (G C H Q ) o n a s ta tu to ry b a s is e c h o e d th e e x is te n c e o f th e s e s e rv ic e s o ffic ia lly fo r th e firs t tim e.^^ F ig u r e 3 .1 . T lic U K I n t e ll ig e n c e C o m m u n it y C h r is t o p h e r A n d r e w , ‘T h e B r it is h V i e w o f S e c u r it y a n d I n t e llig e n c e ’ , in A . S tu a r t P a r s o n ( e d .) a n d J n le llig e n c e In A C h a n g in g W orld: Ncm’ P e r s p e c tiv e s F o r T he S e c u r ity 7 9 P 0 .v ( L o n d o n ; F r a n k C a s s , 1 9 9 1 ) , p . 1 0 K . G . R o b e r t s o n , ‘R e c e n t R e f o r m o f I n t e llig e n c e in th e U n it e d K in g d o m D e m o c r a t iz a t io n o r R is k M a n a g e m e n t ? ’, In te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l S e c u r ity v o l. 13 n o . 2 (S u m m e r 1 9 9 8 ) 37 A s d e p ic te d in fig u re 3 .1 . th e U n ite d K in g d o m h a s th re e in te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity s e rv ic e s , c o lle c tiv e ly k n o w n a s th e A g e n c ie s - th e S e c u rity S e rv ic e , S IS a n d G C H Q . T h e o p e ra tio n s a n d fu n c tio n s o f all th re e h a v e b e e n p la c e d o n a s ta tu to iy b a sis, b y th e p r o v is i o n s o f th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s A c t 1994, an d th e S e c u rity S e rv ic e A c ts 1 9 8 9 a n d 1 996. A n o th e r im p o r ta n t c o n trib u to r to th e c e n tra l in te llig e n c e m a c h in e ry is th e D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e S t a f f (D IS ), w h ic h is a n in te g ra l p a rt o f th e M in is try o f D e fe n s e . 3 .1 .1 . S e c u r ity S e r v ic e T h e S e c u rity S e rv ic e , a ls o k n o w n as M I5 , o rig in a te d in 1 9 0 9 a s th e in te rn a l a rm o f th e S e c re t S e rv ic e B u re a u , ta s k e d w ith c o u n te r in g G e rm a n e s p io n a g e . In 1931 it a s s u m e d w id e r re s p o n s ib ility fo r a s se s s in g th re a ts to B r itis h n a tio n a l s e c u rity w h ic h in c lu d e d in te rn a tio n a l c o m m u n is t s u b v e rs io n a n d fa s c ism . T h e S e c u rity S e rv ic e A c t p la c e s th e s e rv ic e u n d e r th e a u th o rity o f th e H o m e S e c re ta ry . T h e A c t a lso s e ts o u t th e fu n c tio n s o f th e S e rv ic e , a s w e ll a s c e rta in c o n tro ls a n d o v e rs ig h t a rran g em en ts.^'* A s th e U K 's d o m e s tic s e c u rity in te llig e n c e a g e n c y th e s e rv ic e 's p u r p o s e is to p ro te c t th e s ta te a g a in s t su b s ta n tia l, o v e rtly o rg a n iz e d th re a ts , p rim a rily fro m te rro ris m , e s p io n a g e a n d s u b v e rs io n . M o s t re c e n tly , s in c e th e p a s s in g o f th e S e c u rity S eiw ice A c t 1 9 9 6 , its ro le h a s b e e n e x p a n d e d to p r o v i d e s u p p o rt to law e n fo r c e m e n t a g e n c ie s in th e field o f o rg a n iz e d c rim e . W ith in th e UK in te llig e n c e m a c h in e ry , th e S e rv ic e 's ro le is to in v e s tig a te th re a ts b y g a th e rin g , a n a ly z in g a n d a s s e s s in g in te llig e n c e ; to c o u n te r s p e c ific th r e a ts b y ta k in g a c tio n , w h e re a p p ro p r ia te in c o n ju n c tio n w ith o th e rs; a n d to a d v is e th e g o v e rn m e n t a n d o th e rs a s H M SO , M I5 : T he S e c u r ity S e n ’ic e , ( L o n d o n : T h e S t a t io n e r y O fT ic e , 1 9 9 8 ) , p . 5 . 38 n e c e s s a ry o n th e n a tu re o f th e th re a t, a n d o n re le v a n t p r o te c tiv e s e c u rity m e a su re s . 3 .1 .2 . 55 S e c r e t I n t e l l i g e n c e S e i* v ic e ( S I S ) T h e S e c re t In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e , a ls o k n o w n a s M 16, o rig in a te d in 1 9 0 9 as th e F o re ig n S e c tio n o f th e S e c re t S e rv ic e B u re a u . W ith th e p a s s in g o f th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s A c t, S IS w a s p la c e d o n a s ta tu to ry b a s is u n d e r th e F o re ig n & C o m m o n w e a lth S e c re ta ry to w h o m it is re s p o n s ib le fo r all a s p e c ts o f its w o rk . T h e a c t d e fin e s th e ro le o f M I6 as; “ a) to o b ta in a n d p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n re la tin g to th e a c tio n s o r in te n tio n s o f p e rs o n s o u ts id e th e B r itis h Is la n d s ; a n d (b ) to p e rfo rm o th e r ta s k s re la tin g to th e a c tio n s o r in te n tio n s o f s u c h p e rs o n s , [in re la tio n to ] th e in te re s ts o f n a tio n a l se c u rity , w ith p a rtic u la r re fe re n c e t o d e fe n s e a n d fo re ig n p o lic ie s ...th e in te re s ts o f th e e c o n o m ic w e ll-b e in g o f th e U K o r in s u p p o rt o f th e p r e v e n tio n o r d e te c tio n o f s e rio u s c rim e .” T h e S e rv ic e 's p rin c ip a l ro le is th e p r o d u c tio n o f s e c re t in te llig e n c e in s u p p o rt o f g o v e rn m e n t's s e c u rity , d e fe n s e , fo re ig n a n d e c o n o m ic p o lic ie s w ith in th e fra m e w o r k o f re q u ire m e n ts la id u p o n it b y th e J o in t In te llig e n c e C o m m itte e a n d a p p ro v e d b y M in iste rs . It m e e ts th e s e JIC re q u ir e m e n ts fo r in te llig e n c e g a th e rin g a n d o th e r ta s k s th ro u g h a v a rie ty o f s o u rc e s , h u m a n a n d te c h n ic a l a n d b y lia is o n w ith a w id e ra n g e o f fo re ig n in te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity s e rv ic e s. S p e c ific o p e ra tio n s a re s u b je c t to lo n g -s ta n d in g p ro c e d u r e s fo r o ffic ia l a n d m in iste ria l c le a ra n c e . .55 56 ” I b id ., p p . 6 - 1 2 . K . G . R o b e r t s o n , o p . c it ., p . 1 4 8 . I b id ., 39 3 .1 .3 . G o v e r n m e n t C o m m u n ic a tio n s H e a d q u a r te r s (G C H Q ) G C I IQ p ro v id e s g o v e rn m e n t d e p a rtm e n ts a n d m ilita ry c o m m a n d s w ith s ig n a l in te llig e n c e (S ig in t) in s u p p o rt o f g o v e rn m e n t's s e c u rity , d e fe n s e , fo re ig n a n d e c o n o m ic p o lic ie s . T h e D ir e c to r o f G C H Q is re s p o n s ib le to th e F o re ig n & C o m m o n w e a lth S e c re ta ry . G C H Q d e riv e s s ig n a l in te llig e n c e b y m o n ito rin g a v a rie ty o f c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d o th e r s ig n a ls , su c h a s ra d a rs. F o r th is p u rp o s e it c o n tro ls a n d a d m in is te rs th e C o m p o s ite S ig n a ls O rg a n iz a tio n w h i c h o p e ra te s fro m a n u m b e r o f lo c a tio n s in th e U K a n d o v e rs e a s. L ik e S IS a n d th e S e c u rity S e rv ic e , it a ls o w o rk s in lia is o n w ith a ra n g e o f fo re ig n in te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity serv ices.^ * In a d d itio n to p ro v id in g s ig n a ls in te llig e n c e , G C H Q a ls o p ro v id e s a d v ic e a n d a s s is ta n c e to g o v e rn m e n t d e p a rtm e n ts a n d th e a rm e d fo rc e s o n th e s e c u rity o f th e i r c o m m u n ic a tio n s a n d in fo rm a tio n te c h n o lo g y s y s te m s. 3 .1 .4 . D e f e n s e I n t e l l i g e n c e S t a lT ( D I S ) T h e D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e S ta ff, p a rt o f th e M in is try o f D e fe n s e , is a n e s s e n tia l e le m e n t o f th e c e n tra l in te llig e n c e m a c h in e ry . T h e C h i e f o f D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e (C D I) is re s p o n s ib le fo r th e w o r k o f th e D IS a n d is c h a rg e d a ls o w ith th e o v e ra ll d ire c tio n o f in te llig e n c e w it h in th e d e fe n s e c o m m u n ity . T h e ta s k o f th e D IS is to a n a ly z e in fo rm a tio n fro m a w id e v a rie ty o f s o u rc e s , b o th o v e rt a n d c o v e rt. In o r d e r to m a k e d e c is io n s . M in is tr y o f D e fe n s e (M O D ) p o lic y -m a k e rs , m ilita ry p la n n e rs a n d fo rc e c o m m a n d e rs n e e d an a c c u ra te v ie w o f w o rld d e v e lo p m e n ts , tim e ly w a rn in g o f im p e n d in g c ris e s , a n d in fo rm e d re p o rtin g o n a re a s w h e r e B ritis h fo rc e s a re o r m a y b e d e p lo y e d . T h e s e a re th e ta s k s o f th e D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e S t a f f I b id ., 59 G o v e r n m e n t C o m m u n i c a t i o n s H e a d q u a r t e r s o f T ic ia l w e b s it e . 40 h lt p : //w w w .g c h q .g o v .u k (D IS ), w h ic h p r o d u c e s a s se s s m e n ts d ra w in g o n m a te ria l fro m a v a rie ty o f s o u rc e s , in c lu d in g b o th o p e n lite ra tu re a n d c la s s ifie d re p o rts . T h e s e a s s e s s m e n ts ra n g e fro m s tu d ie s o f th e c h a ra c te ris tic s o f w e a p o n s y s te m s h e ld b y p o te n tia l o p p o n e n ts , to th e a n a ly sis o f th e in flu e n c e s a t w o rk in a n y p a rt o f th e w o rld w h e r e th e U n ite d K in g d o m h a s im p o rta n t in te re s ts . 3 .2 .0 V E R S 1 G H T A N D A C C O U N T A B I L T Y O F T H E I N T E L L I G E N C E C O M M U N IT Y : U n d e r th e S e c u rity S e rv ic e A c t a n d th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s A c t, le g is la tiv e a n d e x e c u tiv e b ra n c h e s o v e rs e e U K in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s . 3 . 2 .1 . M i n i s t e r i a l C o m m i t t e e o n t h e I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s ( I S ) In th e ir d a y -to -d a y o p e ra tio n s th e In te llig e n c e an d S e c u rity A g e n c ie s o p e ra te u n d e r th e im m e d ia te c o n tro l o f th e ir re s p e c tiv e h e a d s th a t a re p e rs o n a lly re s p o n s ib le to M in iste rs. T h e P rim e M in is t e r is re s p o n s ib le fo r in te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity m a tte rs o v e ra ll a n d is s u p p o rte d in th a t c a p a c ity b y th e S e c re ta ry o f th e C a b in e t. T h e H o m e S e c re ta ry is re s p o n s ib le fo r th e S e c u rity S e rv ic e ; th e F o re ig n & C o m m o n w e a lth S e c re ta ry fo r S IS an d G C IIQ . T h e S e c re ta ry o f S ta te fo r D e fe n s e is re s p o n s ib le fo r th e D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e S t a f f (D IS ) w h ic h fo rm s a n in te g ra l p a rt o f th e M in is try o f D e fe n s e .^ “ T h e r e is a ls o a M in iste ria l C o m m itte e o n th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s (IS ), w h o s e T e rm s o f R e fe r e n c e a re " T o k e e p u n d e r re v ie w p o lic y o n th e s e c u rity a n d in te llig e n c e se rv ic e s" fo r e x a m p le , th e C o m m itte e c o n s id e re d T h e U K C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e M a c h in e r y '' o f f i c i a l w e b s i t e h U p .7 /\v w w . c a b i n e t - o f f i c e , g o v .u k / c a b s c c / 1 9 9 8 / c i n i / c i r n r e p 1.h im 41 p o lic y iss u e s c o n n e c te d w ith th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s A c t. T h e P rim e M in is t e r is its c h a irm a n a n d th e o th e r m e m b e rs a re th e D e p u ty P rim e M in is te r, H o m e , D e fe n s e a n d F o re ig n & C o m m o n w e a lth S e c re ta rie s a n d th e C h a n c e llo r o f th e E x c h e q u e r. 3 .2 .2 . P e r m a n e n t S e c r e ta r ie s ' C o m m it t e e o n t h e I n te llig e n c e S e r v ic e s ( P S I S ) : M in is t e rs a re a s s iste d in th e o v e rs ig h t o f th e A g e n c ie s b y th e P e r m a n e n t S e c re ta rie s ' C o m m itte e o n th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s (P S IS ) w h ic h s c ru tin iz e s th e A g e n c ie s ' a n n u a l e x p e n d itu re fo re c a s ts , m a n a g e m e n t p la n s a n d in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n ts , a s p a rt o f th e P u b lic E x p e n d itu re S u rv e y a rra n g e m e n ts . T h e s e p la n s , to g e th e r w ith th e re c o m m e n d a tio n s o f th e P S IS , a re th e n s u b m itte d to M in is te rs , w h o a g re e th e a p p ro p ria te lev e l o f fu n d in g fo r th e A g e n c ie s th ro u g h th e S in g le In te llig e n c e V o te (S IV ). F o r 1 9 9 6 -9 7 th is is £ 7 5 1 m illio n . P S IS is c h a ire d b y th e S e c re ta ry o f th e C a b in e t a n d its m e m b e rs a re th e P e r m a n e n t U n d e r S e c re ta rie s o f th e F o re ig n & C o m m o n w e a lth O ffic e , M in is tr y o f D e fe n s e , H o m e O ffic e a n d T re a su ry . T h e In te llig e n c e C o o r d in a to r a c ts a s a d v is e r to P S IS , a n d c h a irs a n a d v is o ry c o m m itte e , k n o w n a s th e P re lim in a ry C o m m itte e , w h ic h c o n d u c ts th e firs t s c ru tin y o f th e A g e n c ie s ' E x p e n d itu re F o re c a s ts . 3 .2 .3 . T h e I n t e llig e n c e a n d S e c u r it y C o m m it t e e : P a r lia m e n ta ry o v e rs ig h t o f th e A g e n c ie s is p ro v id e d b y th e In te llig e n c e a n d S e c u rity C o m m itte e , e s ta b lis h e d b y th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s A c t a n d o p e ra tin g w ith in th e 'rin g o f se c re c y ', w h ic h e x a m in e s th e ir e x p e n d itu re , a d m in is tra tio n a n d p o lic y . Its c ro s s -p a rty I b id ., 42 m e m b e rs h ip o f n in e fro m b o t h H o u s e s is a p p o in te d b y th e P r im e M in is te r a fte r c o n s u lta tio n w ith th e L e a d e r o f th e O p p o s itio n . T h e C o m m itte e is re q u ire d to re p o rt a n n u a lly to th e P rim e M in is te r o n its w o rk . T h e s e re p o rts , a fte r d e le tio n s o f o p e ra tio n a lly m a te ria l, a re p la c e d b e fo r e th e P a rlia m e n t b y th e P rim e M in is te r. s e n s itiv e T h e C o m m itte e m a y a ls o , a n d d o e s, p ro v id e ad h o c re p o rts to th e P rim e M in is te r fro m tim e to tim e . 3 . 2 .4 . C o m m i s s i o n e r s U n d e r th e S e c u rity S e rv ic e A c t an d th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s A c t, th e A g e n c ie s a re s u b je c t to o v e rs ig h t by tw o c o m m is s io n e rs (th e S e c u rity S e rv ic e C o m m is s io n e r and th e In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s C o m m is s io n e r) w h o m u st h o ld , o r h a v e h e ld , h ig h Ju d ic ia l o ffic e . T h e y re v ie w th e iss u e a n d a u th o riz a tio n , b y th e re le v a n t S e c re ta ry o f S ta te , o f w a rra n ts fo r in te rfe re n c e w ith p ro p e rty and a ls o a s s is t th e T rib u n a ls e s ta b lis h e d b y th e A c ts to in v e s tig a te p u b lic c o m p la in ts a g a in s t th e A g e n c ie s . T h e y r e p o rt a n n u a lly to th e P rim e M in is te r o n th e ir w o r k a n d th e ir re p o rts a re in tu rn la id b e fo r e th e P a rlia m e n t. A th ird c o m m is s io n e r o p e ra te s in a s im ila r m a n n e r u n d e r th e In te rc e p tio n o f C o m m u n ic a tio n s A c t of 1985 in re s p e c t to th e a u th o riz a tio n of w a r ra n ts to in te rc e p t m a il and te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s o n a p p lic a tio n fro m th e in te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity A g e n c ie s a n d la w e n fo rc e m e n t o rg a n iz a tio n s . T h e C o m m is s io n e r a ls o a s s ists a T rib u n a l e s ta b lis h e d to in v e s tig a te p u b lic c o m p la in ts a b o u t in te rc e p tio n . K . G . R o b e r ts o n , ‘R e c e n t R e f o r m o f I n t e llig e n c e in th e U n ite d K in g d o m D c m o c r a tiz iU io n o r R is k M a n a g e m e n t? ’, I n te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l S e c u r ity v o l. 13 n o . 2 ( S u m m e r 1 9 9 8 ) , p p . 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 . 43 3 .3 . C O O R D I N A T I N G I N T E L L I G E N C E A N D P O L I C Y M A K I N G 3 . 3 .1 . T h e C e n t r a l I n t e l l i g e n c e M a c h i n e r y T h e C e n tra l In te llig e n c e M a c h in e ry is th e c e n tra l m e c h a n ism , b a s e d in t h e C a b in e t O ffic e , fo r th e ta s k in g , c o o rd in a tio n a n d re s o u r c in g o f th e U n ite d K in g d o m 's in te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity A g e n c ie s , fo r s c ru tin iz in g th e ir p e rfo rm a n c e a n d fo r re p o rtin g o n th e in te llig e n c e th e y p ro d u c e . 3 .3 .2 . T h e J o in t I n t e llig e n c e C o m m it t e e T h e J o in t In te llig e n c e C o m m itte e (J IC ) is th e m a in in s tru m e n t fo r a d v is in g o n p rio ritie s fo r in te llig e n c e g a th e rin g a n d fo r a s se s s in g its re s u lts . T h e JIC is re s p o n s ib le b o th fo r s e ttin g th e U K 's n a tio n a l in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n ts and fo r p ro d u c in g re g u la r in te llig e n c e a s s e s s m e n ts o n a ra n g e o f s itu a tio n s a n d iss u e s o f c u rre n t c o n c e rn fo r m in is te rs an d o ffic ia ls. It m e e ts w e e k ly , and its m e m b e rs a re s e n io r o ffic ia ls in th e F o re ig n & C o m m o n w e a lth O ffic e , th e M in is try o f D e f e n s e , D e p a r tm e n t o f T ra d e & In d u s try , a n d th e T re a s u ry , th e H e a d s o f th e th re e in te llig e n c e a n d s e c u rity A g e n c ie s , th e In te llig e n c e C o o rd in a to r a n d th e C h i e f o f th e A s s e s s m e n ts S ta ff. O th e r D e p a r tm e n ts a tte n d as a p p ro p ria te . T h e JTC is s u p p o rte d b y a p e rm a n e n t A s s e s s m e n ts S t a f f a n d S e c re ta ria t a s w e ll a s a n u m b e r o f s p e c ia lis t in te rd e p a rtm e n ta l S u b -C o m m ittee s.^ '* T h e J IC 's s u p p o r t s t a f f is th e A s s e s s m e n ts S ta ff, w h ic h c o m p ris e s a m ix tu re o f s e n io r an d m id d le ra n k in g o ffic e rs s e c o n d e d fro m v a rio u s d e p a rtm e n ts , s e rv ic e s a n d T h e U K C e n tr a l I n te llig e n c e M a c h in e r y ' o f f ic ia l w e b s it e c a n b e fo u n d at h t t p : /A \'w w .c a b in c t - o f f ic c .g o v .u k /c a b s e c /1 9 9 8 /c in i/c im r c p l.lU in I b id ., 44 d is c ip lin e s , a n d is re s p o n s ib le fo r d ra ftin g a s s e s s m e n ts o f s itu a tio n s a n d is s u e s o f c u rre n t c o n c e rn . T h e s e a s s e s s m e n ts a re s u b je c te d to in te r -d e p a rtm e n ta l s c ru tin y a t th e d ra ftin g s ta g e in s u b - c o m m itte e s o f th e JIC , k n o w n a s C u r re n t In te llig e n c e G ro u p s (C IG s ), w h ic h b rin g to g e th e r e x p e rts fro m a ra n g e o f G o v e rn m e n t D e p a rtm e n ts a n d A g e n c ie s . T h e te x t is th e n n o rm a lly s u b m itte d to th e JIC fo r a p p ro v a l b e fo re b e in g c irc u la te d to M in is te rs a n d s e n io r o ffic ia ls, th o u g h in c a s e s o f u rg e n c y it c a n b e iss u e d im m e d ia te ly . T h e A s s e s s m e n ts S t a f f a n d th e C IG s d ra w o n all re le v a n t in fo rm a tio n , o v e rt a n d c o v e rt. T h e J o in t In te llig e n c e S e c re ta ria t is re s p o n s ib le fo r th e a d m in is tra tio n o f th e JIC a n d its s u b -c o m m itte e s , a n d fo r s u p p o rt to th e In te llig e n c e C o o rd in a to r. T o g e th e r w ith th e A s s e s s m e n ts S ta ff, it is lo c a te d in th e C a b in e t O ffic e ; its p e rs o n n e l a re e ith e r s e c o n d e d fro m o th e r D e p a rtm e n ts o r p e rm a n e n t C a b in e t O ffic e s t a f f 3 .3 .3 . I iite llig e iiic e C o o r d in a t o r : T h e In te llig e n c e C o o r d in a to r a d v ise s th e S e c re ta ry o f th e C a b in e t o n th e c o o rd in a tio n o f th e in te llig e n c e m a c h in e ry a n d its re s o u rc e s a n d p ro g ra m s . H e c h a irs v a rio u s fo rm a l a n d in fo rm a l g r o u p s c h a rg e d w ith in te llig e n c e m a n a g e m e n t. H e h a s p a rtic u la r re s p o n s ib ility fo r e s ta b lis h in g th e U n ite d K in g d o m 's in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n ts a n d fo r a d v is in g o n th e a llo c a tio n o f th e re s o u r c e s to e n a b le th e a g e n c ie s to m e e t th e m . 45 3 .4 . A N A N A L Y S IS O F T H E B R IT IS H S Y ST E M : T h e im p o rta n c e o f th e in te llig e n c e to U K m a y b e b e s t e x p la in e d b y th e fo llo w in g e x p re s s io n s ; “ .. . a p a r t fro m in te llig e n c e ’s in flu e n c e o n p a rtic u la r d e c is io n s , th e r e is th e c u m u la tiv e in flu e n c e o n n a tio n a l s ta n d in g o f h a v in g w e ll- in fo rm e d p o lic ie s . T h is h a s b e e n p a rtic u la rly re le v a n t t o B rita in a s a n a tio n o f d e c lin in g e c o n o m ic p o w e r w is h in g n e v e rth e le s s to m a in ta in w o rld s ta tu s ...I n te ll i g e n c e h a s b e e n o n e e le m e n t in th is p o sitio n . G o o d in te llig e n c e h a s h e lp e d B rita in to p la y b a d h a n d s w ith s o m e fin e s s e .” *’^ W ith its m ilita ry c a p a c ity -in c lu d in g n u c le a r p o w e r-, e c o n o m ic c a p a c ity , g e o g ra p h ic lo c a tio n , n a tu ra l re s o u rc e s , e d u c a te d p o p u la tio n , q u a lity o f th e p o litic a l s y s te m a n d le a d e rs h ip a n d re la tiv e ly h ig h n a tio n a l m o ra le , B rita in is ra n k e d a m o n g th e m o st p o w e rftil s ta te s o f th e w o r l d . E n g a g i n g in tw o m a jo r w o rld w a rs (W W I a n d W W II) a n d o n e c o ld w a r, B ritish in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity h a s h a d th e c h a n c e o f te s tin g , d e v e lo p in g , a n d im p ro v in g its s tr u c tu re to m e e t th e n a tio n ’s n e e d s. T h e w a r tim e p r e s tig e o f th e B r itis h s u c c e s s c a u se d its p a tte rn to b e c o p ie d fa irly w id e ly a fte r 1 9 4 5 . T h e U S a n d th e C o m m o n w e a lth c o u n trie s a d o p te d th e B r itis h p attern .^ ^ C o ld W a r y e a rs a re e s p e c ia lly im p o rta n t to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity . F o re ig n in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s h a v e p la y e d a k e y ro le d u rin g th e C o ld W a r. C la n d e s tin e e x e rc is e d . c o lle c tio n T e c h n ic a l te c h n iq u e s in te llig e n c e w e re im p ro v e d . c o lle c tio n C o v e rt o p e ra tio n s c a p a b ilitie s w ere w ere in c re a s e d . w id e ly M o re o v er c o m b a tin g a g a in s t in te rn a l te rr o ris t th re a ts (IR A ) h a v e led th e B r itis h In te llig e n c e to d e v e lo p a s tro n g s e c u rity in te llig e n c e a g e n c y . 6.·; 66 I b i d ., p . 1 5 3 . J o h n S p a in e r , o p . c i t ., p p . 1 6 2 - 1 7 8 . 46 D e c la s s ifie d in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n s g iv e id e a s o n h o w s u c c e s s fu l th e U K sy s te m . H o w e v e r, re a l s u c c e s s s h o u ld b e s o u g h t in th e o v e ra ll fo re ig n p o lic y p e rfo rm a n c e . A s e x p la in e d in C h a p te r 2, s o u n d fo re ig n p o lic y -m a k in g a n d im p le m e n tin g s h o u ld b e a c c o m p a n ie d by h ig h q u a lity in te llig e n c e a n a ly sis and o p e ra tio n s . The o v e ra ll p e rfo rm a n c e o f B ritis h fo re ig n p o lic y in w o rld a ffa irs p ro v e s th a t th e U K fo re ig n in te llig e n c e is s u c c e s s fu l, e s p e c ia lly c o m p a re d w ith o th e r s ta te s ’ in te llig e n c e sy s te m s . A t th e L a u s a n n e C o n fe re n c e in 1 9 2 2 -2 3 , d e c ry p te d te le g ra m s , w h ic h p ro v id e d m o st o f th e T u rk is h d e le g a tio n 's c o rre s p o n d e n c e c o n trib u te d to B r itis h n e g o tia tin g tactics.*’*' B ritis h in te llig e n c e p la y e d a m a jo r ro le in b rin g in g th e U S in to W W I. P u b lic re v e la tio n s o f G e rm a n in te llig e n c e a tte m p ts to p re v e n t U S in d u s try a n d th e fin a n c ia l s e c to r fro m a s s is tin g th e UK a n g e re d th e A m e ric a n p u b lic . B r itis h in te llig e n c e in te rc e p te d a n d d e c ry p te d G e rm a n d ip lo m a tic tra ffic , a ls o a s th e k n o w n Z im m e r m a n te le g ra m , s h o w in g a G e rm a n e ffo rt to p u s h th e M e x ic a n g o v e rn m e n t in to jo in in g G e rm a n y a g a in s t th e U S in re tu rn fo r T e x a s , A riz o n a , a n d N e w M e x ic o i f G e rm a n y w o n th e war.**’ O n e o f th e c ru c ia l s u c c e s s e s o f B ritis h in te llig e n c e is th e o p e ra tio n n a m e d U L T R A . D u rin g W W II G e rm a n y c o m m itte d v irtu a lly its e n tire s e c re t c o m m u n ic a tio n s y s te m to th e E n ig m a c ip h e r m a c h in e . B ritis h c o d e -b re a k e rs m a n a g e d to c o n s tru c t a m o d e l o f th e E n ig m a m a c h in e a n d , a s a re s u lt u n c o v e re d its se c re ts. T h e in te rc e p te d s e c re t G e rm a n s ig n a ls d e c ry p te d b y th e E n ig m a m a c h in e , g a v e u n p a ra lle le d a d v a n ta g e to th e A llie s. T h e A llie s le a rn e d in a d v a n c e all th e p la n s a n d m o v e s o f th e G e rm a n s . T h is M ic h a e l H e r m a n , o p . c it., p .2 4 . I b i d ., p . 1 5 3 47 e n o rm o u s a d v a n ta g e re m a in e d a s e c re t n o t o n ly fo r th e d u ra tio n o f th e w a r b u t f o r a lm o s t th irty y e a rs a fte rw ard .™ S ta rtin g a c tiv e ly in th e m id o f 1 9 6 0 I R A ’s te rr o ris t a c tiv itie s d istu rb e d th e B ritis h g o v e rn m e n ts . The re s p o n s e to th e s e a c tiv itie s fro m B r itis h g o v e rn m e n ts w e re d e c is iv e a n d s e rv e d as a d e te r re n t b y th e h e lp o f h ig h q u a lity in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n s . A s s ta te d 71 p re v io u s ly , th e c u rre n t B ritis h in te llig e n c e th ro u g h th e m a jo r w a rs a n d th e p o litic a l e v e n ts o f th is c e n tu ry . s y s te m h a s d e v e lo p e d In c h a p te r 1, th e m a in c o n c e p ts o f in te llig e n c e , an d in c h a p te r 2 th e re la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n in te llig e n c e a n d fo re ig n p o lic y m a k in g a re e x p la in e d . M a in c o lle c tio n d is c ip lin e s o f in te llig e n c e a re m e t in th e B r itis h s y s te m b y s e p a ra te o rg a n iz a tio n s . T h e S IS c o lle c ts fo re ig n in te llig e n c e in c lu d in g e c o n o m ic in te llig e n c e a n d c o n d u c ts c o v e rt o p e ra tio n s . T h e G C H Q c o lle c ts a n d a n a ly z e s th e fo re ig n sig n a l in te llig e n c e . D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e S t a f f is ta s k e d th e m ilita ry in te llig e n c e . T h e S e c u rity S e rv ic e is re s p o n s ib le fo r d o m e s tic in te llig e n c e in c o m b a tin g te rro rism , an d c o u n te re s p io n a g e . T h u s th e B ritis h In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity c o v e rs all a s p e c ts o f in te llig e n c e . T a b le 3 .2 . S h o w s th e o rg a n iz a tio n s ta s k e d fo r o v e rs ig h t a n d a c c o u n ta b ility o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity . T h e s e e x te rn a l o v e rs ig h t a g e n c ie s fro m e x e c u tiv e a n d le g is la tiv e b ra n c h e s o f th e B r itis h g o v e rn m e n t p la y a n im p o rta n t ro le n o t o n ly in w a tc h in g c lo s e ly th e a c tiv itie s o f th e c o m m u n ity b u t a ls o in g iv in g fe e d b a c k , a n d in fo s te rin g im p ro v e m e n t o f th e a g e n c ie s . I b id ., p . 1 5 4 70 C h a r le s D . A m c r in g e r , U.S. F o r e ig n In te llig e n c e , (M a ss a c h u se tts: L e x in g to n B o o k s , 1 9 9 0 ), p p . 1 4 6 -1 5 5 . 48 S e c r e t I n t e l l i g e n c e G o v e r n m e n t S e n / i c e (F o r e i g n C o m m u n i c a t i o n I n t e l l i g e n c e ) H e a d q u a r t e r s (S i g n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e a n d I n f o r m a t i o n C o lle c t io n S e c u r i t y ) D e f e n s e I n t e ll ig e n c e S e c u r i t y S e r v i c e M i n is t e r i a l O ve rs ig h t a n d P e r m a n e n t S t a f f ( D o m e s t i c C o m m i t t e e O n S e c r e t a r i e s (M i l it a r y I n t e l l i g e n c e ) I n t e l l i g e n c e ) T h e I n t e l l i g e n c e C o m m i t t e e o n t h e S e r v i c e s I n t e l l i g e n c e S e r v i c e s A c c o u n t a b ilit y T h e I n t e l l i g e n c e a n d S e c u r i t y C o m m i t t e e C o m m i s s i o n e r s C e n t r a l T h e I n t e l l i g e n c e Jo i n t M a c h i n e r y I n t e l l i g e n c e C o m m i t t e e C o o rd in a t io n I n t e l l i g e n c e C o o r d i n a t o r T a b ic 3 .2 . T h e U .K . I n t e l lig e n c e E s t a b lis h m e n t s in R e la t io n t o C o l le c t io n , O v e r s i g h t a n d A c c o u n t a b ility T h e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity in th e B ritis h s y s te m fin d s its p la c e in th e p o lic y m a k in g p ro c e s s th ro u g h th e e s ta b lis h m e n ts , C e n tra l In te llig e n c e M a c h in e ry , T h e J o in t In te llig e n c e C o m m itte e , a n d th e In te llig e n c e c o o rd in a to r. T h e s e e s ta b lis h m e n ts a re in th e C a b in e t, w h ic h is th e h ig h e s t lev e l o f th e p o lic y m a k in g p ro c e s s . S e c f o r e x a m p le J a m e s R e n n ie , The O p e r a to r s : I n s id e 14 I n te llig e n c e C o m p a n y , 49 (L o n d o n : B C A , 1 9 9 6 ). CH APTER 4 - TH E US SYSTEM T h e s u rp ris e a tta c k b y J a p a n o n th e A m e ric a n n a v a l b a s e a t P e a rl H a rb o r o n D e c e m b e r 7, 1 9 4 1 , w a s a g re a t in te llig e n c e s u c c e s s fo r th e J a p a n e s e a n d a n in te llig e n c e fa ilu re fo r th e A m e ric a n s . T h a t fa ilu re s tim u la te d th e p o s tw a r g ro w th of a m a s s iv e in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s in th e U .S .A . B e fo re W o rld W a r II th e U .S . in te llig e n c e s y s te m w a s n o t a s ig n ific a n t o n e ; a fte r th e w a r th e U S g o v e rn m e n t a u th o ritie s g a v e th e s ta rt to b u ild u p a m a s s iv e in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s . 4 .1 . 72 I N T E L L I G E N C E C O M M U N I T Y IN T H E U .S .A . In th e U .S . In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity , th e C e n tra l In te llig e n c e A g e n c y a n d th e D e fe n s e H U M I N T S e rv ice , a n e le m e n t o f th e D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e A g e n c y , a re th e p rim a ry c o lle c to r s o f H U M fN T . S ig n a l in te llig e n c e is c o lle c te d b y th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity A g e n c y . T h e C e n tra l Im a g e ry O ffic e c o o rd in a te s im a g e ry c o lle c tio n a n d p ro c e s s in g . D i r e c t o r o f C e n t r a l D e p a r t m e n t o f D e p a r t m e n t a l I n t e l l i g e n c e D e f e n s e ( D o D ) I n t e l l i g e n c e ^ C h a r le s D . A n ie r in g e r , S a m C . S a r k c s ia n , E l e m e n t s ( n o n - D o D ) U.S. F o r e ig n I n te llig e n c e , Central Intelligence Agency Community Management Staff National Intelligence Council _Defense Intelligence Agency National Security Agency National Reconnaissance Office Air Force Intelligence Army Intelligence Marine Corps Intelligence Navy Intelligence National Mapping Agency Department Of State Department of Energy Department of the Treasury Federal Bureau of Investigation (M a s s a c h u s e tts ; L e x in g to n B o o k s , 1 9 9 0 ), p p . 1 7 7 -1 8 3 . U.S. N a tio n a l S e c u rity : P o licyin a k en s, P r o c e s s e s , a n d P o litic s R i e n n c r P u b lis h e r s , I n c ., 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 1 3 7 . 50 (C o lo r a d o ; L y n n e 4 .1 .1 . C e n tr a l I n te llig e n c e A g e n c y (C I A ) T h e C e n tra l In te llig e n c e A g e n c y (C IA ), e s ta b lis h e d b y th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity A c t o f 1 9 4 7 , is le d b y th e D ire c to r o f C e n tra l In te llig e n c e (D C I), w h o m a n a g e s C IA in a d d itio n to s e rv in g a s h e a d o f th e In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity . C IA c o lle c ts , e v a lu a te s , a n d d is s e m in a te s fo re ig n in te llig e n c e to a s s is t th e P re s id e n t a n d s e n io r U S G o v e rn m e n t p o lic y m a k e rs in m a k in g d e c is io n s re la tin g to n a tio n a l se c u rity .^ '' C IA 's m is sio n is to p ro v id e th e P re s id e n t, th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il, a n d all o ffic ia ls w h o m a k e a n d e x e c u te U S n a tio n a l se c u rity p o lic y w ith a c c u ra te , c o m p re h e n s iv e , a n d tim e ly fo re ig n in te llig e n c e o n n a tio n a l se c u rity to p ic s. C IA a ls o c o n d u c ts c o u n te rin te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s , sp e c ia l a c tiv itie s, a n d o th e r fu n c tio n s re la te d to fo re ig n in te llig e n c e a n d n a tio n a l se c u rity , as d ire c te d b y th e P re s id e n t. C IA c o lle c ts fo re ig n in te llig e n c e in fo rm a tio n th r o u g h a v a rie ty o f c la n d e s tin e a n d o v e rt m e a n s. T h e A g e n c y a ls o e n g a g e s in re s e a rc h , d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d d e p lo y m e n t o f h ig h -le v e ra g e te c h n o lo g y fo r in te llig e n c e p u rp o s e s a n d —in s u p p o rt o f th e D C I's ro le a s th e P re s id e n t's p rin c ip a l in te llig e n c e a d v is o r—p e rfo rm s a n d r e p o rts a ll-s o u rc e a n a ly s is o n th e fu ll ra n g e o f to p ic s th a t a ffe c t n a tio n a l se c u rity . 4 .1 .2 . N a tio n a l S e c u r ity A g e n c y (N S A ) T h e N a tio n a l S e c u rity A g e n c y is th e la rg e s t a n d th e m o s t s e c re t o f th e in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s o f th e U .S . g o v e rn m e n t. It h a s tw o m a in fu n c tio n s ; to p r o te c t U .S . g o v e rn m e n t c o m m u n ic a tio n s 74 75 and C h a r le s D . A n ie r in g e r , S a in C . S a r k e s ia n , to in te rc e p t fo re ig n U.S. F o re ig n In te llig e n c e , c o m m u n ic a tio n s . It p r o te c ts g o v e rn m e n t ( M a s s a c lu is c lt s : l .c x i n g t o n B o o k s , 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 2 0 1 - 2 0 9 . U.S. N a tio n a l S e c u r ity : P o lic y m a k e r s , P r o c e s e s , a n d P o litic s R ie n n e r P u b li s h e r s , I n c ., 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 1 2 9 - 1 3 3 . 51 (C o lo r a d o : L y n n e c o m m u n ic a tio n s b y e n c ip h e rin g m e s s a g e s a n d ta k in g o th e r m e a s u re s to e n s u re th e ir s e c re c y . In its fo re ig n in te llig e n c e fu n c tio n th e N S A e m p lo y s a v a s t c o rp s o f in te llig e n c e a n a ly s ts w h o u s e s e n s itiv e e le c tro n ic e q u ip m e n t to m o n ito r, d e c ip h e r, a n d tra n s la te th e c o m m u n ic a tio n s o f fo re ig n g o v e rn m e n ts . It c o u ld fo llo w s p a c e ro c k e t la u n c h in g s in th e fo rm e r U S S R a n d c a n o v e rh e a r c o n v e rs a tio n s b e tw e e n a irc ra ft p ilo ts a n d g r o u n d -c o n tro l p e rs o n n e l in re m o te a re a s o f th e g lo b e . T h e N S A w a s e s ta b lis h e d in 1 9 5 2 a s a se p a ra te ly o rg a n iz e d a g e n c y w ith in th e D e p a r tm e n t o f D e fe n s e . It re p la c e d th e A rm e d F o rc e s S e c u rity A g en cy .^^ 4 .1 .3 . D e fe n s e I n te llig e n c e A g e n c y (D I A ) T h e D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e A g e n c y (D IA ) is a d e s ig n a te d c o m b a t s u p p o rt a g e n c y a n d th e s e n io r m ilita ry in te llig e n c e c o m p o n e n t o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity . E s ta b lis h e d in 1 9 6 1 , D IA 's p rim a ry m is sio n is to p ro v id e a ll-s o u rc e in te llig e n c e to th e U S a rm e d fo rc e s. In te llig e n c e s u p p o rt fo r o p e ra tio n a l fo rc e s e n c o m p a s s e s ta rg e tin g a n d b a ttle d a m a g e a s s e s s m e n t, w e a p o n s p ro life ra tio n , w a rn in g o f im p e n d in g c rise s, s u p p o r t to p e a c e k e e p in g o p e ra tio n s , m a in te n a n c e o f d a ta b a s e s on fo re ig n m ilita ry o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d th e ir e q u ip m e n t a n d , as n e c e s s a ry , s u p p o rt to U N o p e ra tio n s a n d U S a llie s. In a d d itio n to th e s e , D IA h a s o th e r im p o rta n t c u s to m e rs , in c lu d in g p o lic y m a k e rs in th e D e p a r tm e n t o f D e fe n s e a n d m e m b e rs o f th e J o in t C h ie fs o f S taff. A d d itio n a lly , D IA p la y s a k e y ro le in p ro v id in g in fo rm a tio n o n fo re ig n w e a p o n s s y s te m s to U S w e a p o n s p la n n e r s a n d th e w e a p o n s a c q u is itio n c o m m u n ity . ' C h a r le s D . A m e r in g e r , 77 U.S. F o re ig n In te llig e n c e , (M a s s a c h u s e tts ; L e x in g to n B o o k s , 1 9 9 0 ), p p . 1 9 2 -1 9 3 I b id ., p . 1 9 2 . 52 4 .2 .0 V E R S I G H T A N D A C C O U N T A B IL IT Y O F T H E I N T E L L IG E N C E C O M M U N IT Y T h e U S In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity is s u b je c t to e x te rn a l o v e rs ig h t fro m th e E x e c u tiv e a n d L e g is la tiv e b ra n c h e s . W ith in th e E x e c u tiv e , th e In te llig e n c e O v e rs ig h t B o a rd , a s ta n d in g c o m m itte e o f th e P re sid e n t's F o re ig n In te llig e n c e A d v is o ry B o a rd , e x e rc is e s o v e ra ll o v e rs ig h t o f th e C o m m u n ity 's a c tiv itie s , in c lu d in g th e re s p o n s ib ility t o o v e rs e e th e fu n c tio n in g o f th e a g e n c ie s ' in te rn a l o v e rs ig h t m e c h a n ism s . In a d d itio n , th e O ffic e o f M a n a g e m e n t a n d B u d g e t p la y s a ro le in e n s u rin g c o n s is te n c y w ith th e P re s id e n t's p ro g ra m . W ith in th e C o n g re s s , p rin c ip a l o v e rs ig h t re s p o n s ib ility re s ts w ith th e tw o in te llig e n c e c o m m itte e s , b u t o th e r c o m m itte e s o c c a s io n a lly b e c o m e in v o lv e d o v e rs ig h t role. in a n 78 4 .2 .1 . P r e s i d e n t 's F o r e i g n I n t e l li g e n c e A d v i s o r y B o a r d ( P F I A B ) ; T h e P F IA B is a n e n tity w ith in th e E x e c u tiv e O ffic e o f th e P re s id e n t fo rm e d to a sse ss th e q u a lity , q u a n tity , a n d a d e q u a c y o f in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n , a n a ly s is, c o u n te rin te llig e n c e , a n d o th e r a c tiv itie s o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity . T h e P F IA B re p o rts d ire c tly to th e P re s id e n t, a n d p ro v id e s re c o m m e n d a tio n s fo r a c tio n s t o im p ro v e a n d e n h a n c e th e p e rfo rm a n c e o f in te llig e n c e e ffo rts. It a lso e x a m in e s iss u e s ra is e d b y th e P r e s id e n t o r th e D ir e c to r o f C e n tra l In te llig e n c e a n d c a n m a k e re c o m m e n d a tio n s d ire c tly to th e D C I.’ ^ M e m b e rs h ip o f th e P F IA B c o n s is ts o f n o t m o re th a t 16 p e rs o n s a p p o in te d b y th e P re s id e n t. T h e P F IA B , P r e p a r in g fo r tlie 2 r ‘ C e n tu r y : A n A p p r a is a l o f U S I n t e llig e n c e , M a r c h 1 9 9 6 , h t t p ; //w w .a c c e s s .g p o .g o v /s u _ d o c s /d p o s /e p u b s /in ( /r e p o r t.h t m l C h a r le s D . A m e r in g c r , U.S. F o r e ig n In te llig e n c e , (M a s s a c h u s e tts : L e x in g to n B o o k s , 1 9 9 0 ), p p . 3 5 2 - 3 5 3 . 53 th ro u g h its in te llig e n c e O v e rs ig h t B o a rd , a ls o a d v ise s th e P r e s i d e n t o n th e le g a lity o f fo re ig n in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s. 4 .2 .2 . P r e s i d e n t 's I n t e l li g e n c e O v e rs ig h t B o a rd (lO B ): The lO B is a s ta n d in g c o m m itte e o f th e P F IA B . T h e lO B is c o m p o s e d o f fo u r m e m b e rs o f th e P F IA B a p p o in te d b y th e C h a irm a n o f th e P F IA B . T h e lO B c o n d u c ts in d e p e n d e n t o v e rs ig h t in v e s tig a tio n s as re q u ire d a n d re v ie w s th e o v e rs ig h t p ra c tic e s a n d p ro c e d u re s o f th e in s p e c to rs g e n e ra l a n d g e n e ra l c o u n s e ls o f in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s. 4 .2 .3 . O f fic e o f M a n a g e m e n t a n d B u d g e t ( O M B ) : 0 M B is p a rt o f th e E x e c u tiv e O ffic e o f th e P re s id e n t. It re v ie w s in te llig e n c e b u d g e ts in lig h t o f p re s id e n tia l p o lic ie s a n d p rio ritie s , c le a rs p ro p o s e d te s tim o n y , a n d a p p ro v e s d ra ft in te llig e n c e le g is la tio n fo r s u b m is s io n to C o n g re ss. 4 .2 .4 . T h e C o n g r e s s P rin c ip a l o v e rs ig h t re s p o n s ib ility re s ts w ith th e tw o in te llig e n c e c o m m itte e s . B y la w , th e P re s id e n t m u s t e n s u re th a t th e s e tw o c o m m itte e s a re k e p t "fu lly a n d c u rre n tly " in fo rm e d o f th e a c tiv itie s o f th e In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity , in c lu d in g a n y s ig n if ic a n t a n tic ip a te d in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s. N o tic e is a ls o re q u ire d to b e p ro v id e d to b o th c o m m itte e s o f all c o v e rt a c tio n p ro g ra m s a p p ro v e d b y th e P r e s id e n t as w e ll a s all s ig n ific a n t in te llig e n c e fa ilu re s . 54 4 .2 .4 .1 . S e n a t e S e le c t C o m m i t t e e o n I n t e l li g e n c e ( S S C I ) : M e m b e rs h ip o f th e S S C I h a s ra n g e d fro m 13 to 17, w ith th e m a jo rity p a rty in C o n g re s s h a v in g o n e m o re m e m b e r th a n th e m in o rity . M e m b e r s o f th e S S C I se rv e 8 -y e a r te rm s . In a d d itio n to its ro le in a n n u a lly a u th o riz in g a p p ro p ria tio n s fo r in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s , th e S S C I c a rrie s o u t o v e rs ig h t in v e s tig a tio n s an d in q u irie s a s re q u ire d . It a lso h a n d le s p re s id e n tia l n o m in a tio n s re fe rre d to th e S e n a te fo r th e p o s itio n s o f D C I, D e p u ty D C I, a n d In s p e c t o r G e n e ra l o f C IA , an d re v ie w s tre a tie s re fe rre d to th e S e n a te fo r ra tific a tio n as n e c e s s a ry to d e te rm in e th e a b ility o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity to v e rify th e p ro v is io n s o f th e tre a ty u n d e r c o n s id e ra tio n . 4 .2 .4 .2 . H o u s e P e r m a n e n t S e le c t C o m m i t t e e o n I n t e l li g e n c e ( H P S C I ) : T h e H P S C I h a s 19 m e m b e rs. M e m b e rs m a y b e a p p o in te d fo r te rm s u p to e ig h t y e a rs. L ik e its S e n a te c o u n te rp a rt, th e H P S C I c o n d u c ts o v e rs ig h t in v e s tig a tio n s a n d in q u irie s in a d d itio n to re c e s s in g th e a n n u a l a u th o riz a tio n o f a p p ro p ria tio n s fo r in te llig e n c e . 4 .3 . C O O R D IN A T IN G IN T E L L IG E N C E A N D P O L IC Y M A K IN G : T h e re a re m a n y a c to r s in m a k in g fo re ig n p o lic y in th e U .S . sy ste m . S o m e o f th e m a re fo rm a l a c to rs w h o s e ro le s a re d e fin e d b y e ith e r c o n s titu tio n o r law . S o m e o f th e m a re in fo rm a l. P u b lic o p in io n , m e d ia, in te re s t g ro u p s , p a rtie s , th in k ta n k s , c o n g re s s , b u re a u c ra c y (S ta te , D e fe n s e , C IA ..), T h e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il a n d fin a lly th e P re s id e n t.”^ 80 H o w a r d J. W ia r d a , A m e r ic a n F o r e ig n P o lic y : A c to r s a n d P r o c e s s e s p .l8 6 . Ib id ., H o w a r d J. W ia r d a , o p . c il.. 55 ( N e w Y o r k : H a q j e r C o llin s , 1 9 9 6 ) 4 . 3 . 1 . T h e P r e s i d e n t : In th e U .S . s y ste m th e P re s id e n t is u ltim a te ly h e ld re s p o n s ib le fo r fo re ig n p o lic y a n d its conduct.**^ T h e P re s id e n t is c o m m a n d e r in C h ie f, w h ic h m e a n s th a t h e h a s th e p o w e r to d e p lo y A m e ric a n fo rc e s th a t is a w a y u s u a lly s e e n in A m e ric a n fo re ig n p o lic y . A s e c o n d m a jo r p o w e r o f th e P re s id e n t is th e tre a ty -m a k in g . T h e C o n s titu tio n g iv e s th e p re s id e n t p o w e r to sig n tre a tie s . A th ird p o w e r o f th e P re s id e n t is a p p o in tm e n t o f h ig h -le v e l fo re ig n p o lic y o ffic ia ls. T h e s e in c lu d e s e c re ta rie s o f S ta te , D e fe n s e , th e d ire c to r o f th e C IA , U N re p re s e n ta tiv e , N S C sta ff, a ll a m b a s s a d o rs , a n d u n d e rs e c re ta rie s a n d a s s is ta n t s e c re ta rie s . A n d lastly , th e P re s id e n t is a ls o th e n a tio n 's c h ie f s p o k e s p e rs o n o n fo re ig n p o lic y , a n d th e o n ly o ffic ia l v o ic e . 4 .3 .2 . T h e N a t io n a l S e c u r it y C o u n c il: T h e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il is th e P re s id e n t's p rin c ip a l fo ru m fo r c o n s id e rin g n a tio n a l s e c u rity a n d fo re ig n p o lic y m a tte rs w ith h is s e n io r n a tio n a l s e c u rity a d v is o rs a n d c a b in e t o ffic ia ls. S in c e its in c e p tio n u n d e r P re s id e n t T ru m a n , th e fu n c tio n o f th e C o u n c il h a s b e e n to a d v ise a n d a s s is t th e P re s id e n t o n n a tio n a l s e c u rity a n d fo re ig n p o lic ie s . T h e c o u n c il a ls o s e rv e s as th e P re s id e n t's p rin c ip a l a rm fo r c o o rd in a tin g th e s e p o lic ie s a m o n g v a rio u s g o v e rn m e n t a g e n c ie s. **^The N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il (N S C ) w a s e s ta b lis h e d b y th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity A c t o f 1 9 4 7 as p a rt o f th e E x e c u tiv e O ffic e o f th e P re s id e n t o f th e U n ite d S ta te s. Its p u rp o s e is to a d v ise th e P re sid e n t o n n a tio n a l s e c u rity m a tte rs , ta k in g in to c o n s id e ra tio n th e c o u n try 's d o m e s tic , fo re ig n , and m ilita ry S t e p h e n K n o t, 'E x e c u t iv e P o w e r a n d t h e C o n tr o l o f A m e r ic a n I n t e llig e n c e ', S e c u r ity p o lic ie s . S ta tu to ry I n te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l v o l. 13 n o . 2 (S u m m e r 1 9 9 8 ), p .l7 5 . H o w a r d J. W i a r d a , o p . c i t . , p p . S a m C . S a r k e s ia n , T ID -IA . U.S. N a tio n a l S e c u r ity : P o lic y m a k e r s , P r o c e s s e s , a n d P o litic s R ie n n e r P u b li s h e r s , I n c ., 1 9 9 5 ) , p .9 1 . 56 ( C o lo r a d o : L y n n e m e m b e rs o f th e N S C a re th e P re s id e n t, th e v ic e -p re s id e n t, a n d th e s e c re ta rie s o f s ta te a n d d e fe n se . M ilita ry a d v is o r to th e N S C is th e c h a irm a n o f th e J o in t C h ie fs o f S ta ff; th e in te llig e n c e a d v is o r is th e d ire c to r o f c e n tra l in te llig e n c e . T h e N S C 's s t a f f o f a n a ly s ts is d ire c te d b y th e a s s is ta n t to th e P re s id e n t fo r n a tio n a l s e c u rity a ffa irs (o r n a tio n a l s e c u rity a d v iso r). 4 . 3 .3 . T h e N a t i o n a l I n t e l l i g e n c e C o u n c i l ( N I C ) ; T h e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e C o u n c il, m a n a g e d b y a c h a irm a n a n d a v ic e c h a irm a n , is c o m p ris e d o f N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O f f i c e r s - s e n i o r e x p e rts d ra w n fro m all e le m e n ts o f th e c o m m u n ity a n d fro m o u ts id e th e g o v e rn m e n t. T h e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O ffic e rs c o n c e n tra te o n th e s u b s ta n tiv e p ro b le m s o f p a rtic u la r g e o g ra p h ic re g io n s o f th e w o rld an d o f p a rtic u la r fu n c tio n a l a re a s su c h a s e c o n o m ic s a n d w e a p o n s p ro life ra tio n . T h e y s e rv e th e D C l in h is ro le as le a d e r o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity b y p ro v id in g a c e n te r fo r m id te rm a n d lo n g -te rm s tra te g ic th in k in g a n d p ro d u c tio n . T h ro u g h ro u tin e c lo s e c o n ta c t w ith p o lic y m a k e rs , c o lle c tio n , re s e a rc h , a n d c o m m u n ity a n a ly s is, th e N IC p ro v id e s th e D C I w ith th e in fo rm a tio n h e n e e d s to a s s ist p o lic y m a k e rs a s th e y p u rs u e s h if tin g in te re s ts a n d fo re ig n p o lic y p rio ritie s . T h e N IC a lso d ra w s o n n o n -g o v e rn m e n ta l e x p e rts in a c a d e m ia an d th e p riv a te s e c to r to b rin g in fre s h p e rs p e c tiv e s a n d a n a ly tic m e th o d s to e n h a n c e th e in te llig e n c e p ro c e ss . F in a lly , th e N IC a s s ists th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity b y e v a lu a tin g S a m C . S a r k e s ia n , o p . c it ., p . 1 0 3 . 57 th e adequacy o f in te llig e n c e s u p p o rt an d w o r k s w ith th e c o m m u n ity 's fu n c tio n a l m a n a g e rs to re fin e s tra te g ie s to m e e t th e m o st c ru c ia l n e e d s o f s e n io r c o n s u m e rs . 87 4 .3 .5 . T h e N a t i o n a l F o r e i g n I n t e l li g e n c e B o a r d ( N F I B ) : T h e N F IB is re s p o n s ib le fo r a p p ro v in g all N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e E s tim a te s fo r c o o rd in a tin g in te ra g e n c y in te llig e n c e e x c h a n g e s a n d th e n u m e ro u s b ila te ra l re la tio n s h ip s w ith fo re ig n n a tio n s th a t s h a re in te llig e n c e w ith th e U n ite d S ta te s , a n d fo r d e v e lo p in g p o lic y fo r th e p r o te c tio n o f in te llig e n c e s o u rc e s a n d m eth o d s.* * 4 .4 . A N A N A L Y S IS O F T H E U S S Y S T E M : T h e U S in te llig e n c e s y s te m is s im ila r to th e B r itis h in te llig e n c e sy ste m . T h e y b o th h a v e s e p a ra te o rg a n iz a tio n s fo r fo re ig n , sig n a l, m ilita ry a n d s e c u rity in te llig e n c e . A s is th e c a s e in th e U K , U S in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s a re s u b je c t to e x te rn a l o v e rs ig h t. T h e n e c e s sa ry e s ta b lis h m e n ts a ls o w a rra n t c lo s e re la tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n p o lic y -m a k in g a n d in te llig e n c e in th e U S sy ste m . T h is p a tte rn o f in te llig e n c e s tru c tu re is a d a p te d b y m a n y le a d in g s ta te s o f th e w o rld , s u c h as G e rm a n y , F ra n c e , C a n a d a , A u s tra lia a n d m o re re c e n tly th e R u s s ia n F e d e ra tio n .* ^ A s s h o w n in ta b le 4 .2 . T h e in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n in th e U S s y ste m is p e rfo rm e d b y s e p a ra te o rg a n iz a tio n s . T h is is p a rtic u la rly im p o rta n t s in c e e a c h o f th e c o lle c tio n a re a s re q u ire s g re a t a tte n tio n a n d e x p e rtise . O v e rs ig h t o f th e in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s p ro v id e s P r e p a r in g fo r t h e 2 1 ” C e n tu r y ; A n A p p r a is a l o f U S I n t e llig e n c e , M a r c h 1 9 9 6 , h lt p : /A w w .a c c c s s .g p o .g o v /s u _ d o c s /d p o s /e p u b s /in t /r e p o r t .h t m I C h a r le s D . A m e r in g e r , U.S. F o r e ig n I n le llig e n c e , (M a ss a c h u se tts: L e x in g t o n B o o k s , 1 9 9 0 ) , p .3 6 1 . F o r m o r e in f o r m a t io n o n s ta te s ' in t e llig e n c e s tr u c tu r e s v is it th e w e b s it e o f t h e F e d e r a t io n o f A m e r ic a n S c ie n t is t s , th e in t e llig e n c e r e s o u r c e s p r o g r a m . h t lp : /A v w w .f a s .o r g /ir p / 58 a g e n c ie s w ith p o lic y g u id a n c e a n d fe e d b a c k . T h e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity is a ls o g iv e n s ig n ific a n t p la c e w ith in th e p o lic y -m a k in g s tru c tu re . I n t e ll ig e n c e C e n t r a l A g e n c y D e f e n s e I n t e ll ig e n c e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y A g e n c y C o lle c tio n F e d e r a l B u r e a u P r e s i d e n t ’s O v e rs ig h t a nd P r e s i d e n t ’s A g e n c y o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n F o r e i g n I n t e l l i g e n c e I n t e l l i g e n c e A d v i s o r y O v e r s i g h t B o a r d B o a r d A c c o u n t a b ilit y O f f i c e S e n a t e H o u s e o f M a n a g e m e n t S e l e c t a n d C o m m i t t e e P e r m a n e n t S e l e c t N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y N a t i o n a l I n t e ll ig e n c e N a t i o n a l F o r e i g n B u d g e t o n I n t e ll ig e n c e C o m m i t t e e o n I n t e ll ig e n c e C o u n c i l C o u n c i l Co o rd in a t io n T a b ic 4 .2 , I n t e l l i g e n c e B o a r d T h e U .S . I n t e l l i g e n c e E s t a b l i s h n i e n T s in R e l a t i o n t o C o l l e c t i o n , O v e r s i g h t a n d C o o r d in a tio n D e c la s s ifie d S u c c e s s e s : Covert A d i on in foreign policy im plem entation: T h e U .S . m a y b e th e o n e o f th e fe w c o u n trie s w h o u s e s c o v e rt a c tio n e x c e s s iv e ly . N o t o n ly in w a rtim e , w h ic h p ro v id e s a le g itim a te g ro u n d to c o n d u c t c o v e rt a c tio n , b u t a ls o in p e a c e tim e , m a y b e m o re th a n w a rtim e , c o v e rt a c tio n h a s b e c o m e a n irre s is tib le to o l o f fo re ig n p o lic y conduct.^^^ M o re o v e r, th e Ira n - C o n tra C o m m itte e o f U .S . S e n a te n o te d in its re p o rt th a t “ p e a c e tim e c o v e rt a c tio n b e c a m e a n in s tru m e n t o f U S fo re ig n p o lic y fo llo w in g th e W W B ob W oodw ard, Veil: The S e c r e ts W a rs o f th e CIA 1 9 8 1 -1 9 8 7 , (N e w Y ork: P o ck et B o o k s, 1 9 8 8 ). T h is b o o k p r o v id e s im p o r ta n t a n d d e t a ile d in f o r m a t io n o n c o v e r t a c t io n s c o n d u c t e d b y U .S . p o lic y - m a k e r s in f o r e ig n p o lic y . S t e p h e n K n o t ,’E x e c u t i v e P o w e r a n d t h e C o n t r o l o f A m e r i c a n I n t e ll ig e n c e ', S e c u r ity v o l. 13 n o . 2 (S u m m e r 1 9 9 8 ), p .l7 2 . 59 In te llig e n c e a n d N a tio n a l C IA h a s lo n g b e e n a s so c ia te d w ith th e o v e rth ro w o f g o v e rn m e n ts a n d th e in s ta lla tio n o f m ilita ry re g im e s . E x a m p le s in c lu d e th e u n s e a tin g o f M o s s a d e g h in Ira n in 1 9 5 3 , th e o v e rth ro w o f G u a te m a la n P r e s id e n t A rb e n z in 1 9 5 4 , th e fa ile d in v a s io n o f C u b a in 1 9 6 1 , a n d th e to p p lin g o f C h ile a n P re s id e n t A lle n d e in 1 9 73. T h e r e c a n b e s e v e ra l re a s o n s o f u s in g c o v e rt a c tio n . It m a y e v e n c h a n g e fro m g o v e rn m e n t to g o v e rn m e n t a n d fro m s ta te to sta te . A s fo r th e U .S ., a m o n g se v e ra l g o v e rn m e n t-fin a n c e d in te llig e n c e re p o rts , th e re p o rt th a t w a s p re p a re d b y th e B ro o k in g s In s titu tio n c o n c lu d e s o n fo re ig n a c tio n a s fo llo w s: T h e U n ite d S ta te s s h o u ld c o n s id e r c o v e rt a c tio n as o n e o f its in stru m e n ts o f fo re ig n p o lic y . W e h a v e b e c o m e c o n d itio n e d to a c c e p t th e u s e o f m ilita ry fo rc e to c h a n g e s itu a tio n s th a t a re u n a c c e p ta b le to u s. W h y s h o u ld w e b e so re lu c ta n t to u s e p o litic a l a c tio n o r c la n d e s tin e m ilita ry s u p p o rt to a ffe c t c h a n g e i f o u r p o lic y is c le a rly d e fin e d a n d o u r in te re s t fu lly id e n tifie d ? S u p p o rtin g a p o litic a l g ro u p th a t is tiy in g to change its c o u n try 's g o v e rn m e n t o r p o lic ie s o r try in g to re p la c e a b a d le a d e r is in o u r in te re s ts . U s in g in fo rm a tio n 3 /4 o r, i f y o u w ish , p r o p a g a n d a 3 /4 to c h a n g e th e b e h a v io r o f a g o v e rn m e n t w h ile c o n c e a lin g th e h a n d o f th e U n ite d S ta te s is b e tte r o p tio n th a n s e n d in g th e F -1 6 s o r th e M a rin e s . O b v io u s ly , c o v e rt a c tio n re q u ire s s p e c ia l a tte n tio n fro m th e p o lic y m a k e r a n d m u st b e p a rt o f a n o v e ra ll p o lic y . I t sh o u ld n o t b e a la st re s o rt a fte r all e ls e h a s f a i l e d ... Post Cold War Successes: A r e p o rt p re p a re d fo r th e U .S . C o n g re s s o n th e fu tu re o f th e A m e ric a n in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity g iv e s th e fo llo w in g d e c la s s ifie d in te llig e n c e s u c c e s s e s w h ile ju s t if y in g th e e x is te n c e o f th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity ; U .S . in te llig e n c e u n c o v e re d th e firs t e v id e n c e s u g g e s tin g th a t N o r th K o re a w a s p la n n in g t o c o n s tru c t a n u c le a r w e a p o n s c a p a b ility a n d s u p p o rte d th e s u b s e q u e n t d ip lo m a tic e ffo rts to re s tra in a n d e n d su c h a c tiv itie s. In a t le a s t tw o c a se s, w ith th e h e lp o f U .S . in te llig e n c e , th e sa le o f ra d io a c tiv e m a te ria ls th a t c o u ld b e u s e d in th e p ro d u c tio n o f n u c le a r w e a p o n s w a s h a lte d 7/3 F rom th e C o ld ' R e p o r t o f a T a s k F o r c e o n ( h e f u U ir e o f U S I n t e l l i g e n c e f u n d e d b y T w e n t ie U i C e n t u r y F u n d , h t t p : //e p n .o r g /t c f /in t e l.h t m l 60 b y o th e r g o v e rn m e n ts . S in c e 1 9 9 0 , U S. in te llig e n c e h as u n c o v e re d th e c la n d e s tin e e ffo rts o f s e v e ra l c o u n trie s to a c q u ire w e a p o n s o f m a ss d e s tru c tio n a n d re la te d d e liv e ry sy s te m s. In s o m e c a se s, th is in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e d th e b a s is fo r d ip lo m a tic a c tio n s b y th e U n ite d S ta te s a n d b y th e U n ite d N a tio n s to c o u n te r su c h e ffo rts. U .S . in te llig e n c e p la y e d a c ru c ia l ro le in s u p p o rtin g U .S . c o m b a t o p e ra tio n s in P a n a m a a n d th e P e rs ia n G u l f b y c o lle c tin g in fo rm a tio n o n th e siz e, c a p a b ilitie s a n d lo c a tio n o f h o s tile fo rc e s, p ro v id in g in fo rm a tio n w h ic h p e rm itte d th e ta r g e tin g o f p re c is io n -g u id e d w e a p o n s , a s se s s in g th e d a m a g e in flic te d b y U .S . a n d a llie d a irc ra ft, a n d w a rn in g o f th r e a ts to th e s e c u rity o f U .S . a n d a llie d fo rc e s. T h e d e p lo y m e n t o f U .S . m ilita ry fo rc e s to S o m a lia , R w a n d a , H a iti, a n d B o s n ia to p e rfo rm o th e r th a n c o m b a t m is s io n s s im ila rly re c e iv e d th e v ig o ro u s s u p p o rt o f in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s , w h ic h p ro v id e d in fo rm a tio n o n th re a ts to th e s e c u rity o f U .S . fo rc e s as w ell a s o n lo c a l c o n d itio n s . U .S . in te llig e n c e p la y e d a k e y ro le in th e re s c u e o f th e d o w n e d A m e ric a n p ilo t in B o s n ia . U .S . in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d s u p p o rt, w h ic h w a s a k e y to th e U .S . s id e in n u m e ro u s b ila te ra l a n d m u ltila te ra l n e g o tia tio n s . U .S . in te llig e n c e h a s p la y e d a n in s tru m e n ta l ro le in th e e ffo rts o f th e C o lo m b ia n g o v e rn m e n t to b r e a k u p th e C a li d ru g c a rte l, in c lu d in g th e a rre s t a n d /o r c a p tu re o f its le a d e rs, a n d , in o th e r c a se s, p ro v id e d in fo rm a tio n w h ic h k e p t d ru g s h ip m e n ts fro m re a c h in g th e U n ite d S ta te s . U .S . in te llig e n c e p la y e d k e y ro le s in h e lp in g o th e r c o u n trie s id e n tify a n d /o r a ir e s t s e v e ra l n o to rio u s te rro ris ts , in c lu d in g C a rlo s th e J a c k a l in S u d a n , th e a lle g e d rin g le a d e r o f th e W o rld T ra d e C e n te r b o m b in g in th e P h illip p in e s , th e h e a d o f th e S h in in g P a th te rro ris t g ro u p in P e ru , a n d th o s e in v o lv e d in th e b o m b in g o f P a n A m 103. O n a t le a s t tw o o c c a sio n s, U .S . in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d in fo rm a tio n th a t led to su c c e ss fu l U .S . d ip lo m a tic e ffo rts to h e a d o f f p o te n tia l a rm e d c o n flic ts b e tw e e n tw o c o u n trie s . In fo rm a tio n w a s 61 p ro v id e d b y U .S . in te llig e n c e o n tw o o c c a s io n s w h ic h fo ile d a s s a s s in a tio n p lo ts a b ro a d a n d le d to th e a rre s t o f th e p e rp e tra to rs . In se v e ra l in sta n c e s , U .S . in te llig e n c e u n c o v e re d fo re ig n c o m p e tito rs o f U .S . c o m m e rc ia l firm s u s in g b rib e ry a n d o th e r ille g a l ta c tic s to o b ta in c o n tra c ts w ith fo re ig n g o v e rn m e n ts . D ip lo m a tic in te rv e n tio n w ith th e g o v e rn m e n t c o n c e rn e d to a s s u re a " lev e l p la y in g fie ld " e v e n tu a lly le d t o a U .S . firm o b ta in in g th e c o n tra c t b y w in n in g th e c o m p e titio n . U .S . in te llig e n c e h a s id e n tifie d v io la tio n s o f m ilita ry a n d tr a d e s a n c tio n s im p o se d b y th e U n ite d N a tio n s in c o n n e c tio n w ith th e s itu a tio n s in Ira q a n d B o s n ia , a n d p ro v id e d th e p rin c ip a l c a p a b ility fo r m o n ito rin g th e " n o -fly " z o n e s in b o th c o u n trie s . O n s e v e ra l o c c a sio n s, U .S . in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d in fo rm a tio n w a rn in g o f fin a n c ia l c o lla p s e in o th e r c o u n trie s , le a d in g to a c tio n s b y th e U n ite d S ta te s an d o th e r g o v e rn m e n ts . U .S . in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d in fo rm a tio n w ith re s p e c t to h u m a n rig h ts a b u s e s a n d e le c tio n -rig g in g b y c e rta in g o v e rn m e n ts w h ic h a lte re d th e U .S . d ip lo m a tic p o s tu re to w a rd s th o s e g o v e rn m e n ts . U .S . in te llig e n c e p r o v id e d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e m ilita ry c a p a b ilitie s o f o th e r g o v e rn m e n ts th a t a lte re d th e re s e a rc h and d e v e lo p m e n t o f U .S . w eapons s y ste m s , p ro v id in g p o te n tia l c o s t s a v in g s and im p ro v in g th e ir e ffe c tiv e n e s s . U .S . in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d in fo rm a tio n to civ il a u th o ritie s in th e U n ite d S ta te s , a s w'ell as in o th e r c o u n trie s , to h e lp c o p e w ith n a tu ra l d is a s te rs , e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro b le m s , a n d h u m a n ita ria n c rise s. U .S . in te llig e n c e h a s s u p p o rte d U n ite d N a tio n s ' p e a c e k e e p in g a n d o th e r o p e ra tio n s a ro u n d th e w o rld . C o n s id e ra b le in fo rm a tio n h a s b e e n p ro v id e d b y U .S . in te llig e n c e to th e B o s n ia W a r C rim e s T rib u n a l. ” P r e p a r in g fo r th e 2 f C e n tu r y : A n A p p r a is a l o f U S I n t e llig e n c e , M a r c h 1 9 9 6 , h lt p : //w w w .a c c e s s .g p o .g o v /s u _ d o c s /d p o s /e p u b s /in t /r e p o n .h t m l 62 C o n c lu s io n : L ik e th e B ritis h in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity , th e U S in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity h a s d e v e lo p e d th ro u g h th e m a jo r w a rs a n d p o litic a l e v e n ts o f th is c e n tu ry . The U K -U S c lo se c o o p e ra tio n o n in te llig e n c e h a s b ro u g h t a c o m m o n s ta n d a rd o n in te llig e n c e fo r th e d e m o c ra tic a n d s tro n g s ta te s o f th e w e s t. B ritis h in te llig e n c e c a rrie d th e in te llig e n c e b u rd e n fo r th e a llie s in th e W W I a n d W W II, in re tu rn th e U S in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity d id s a m e th in g d u rin g th e C o ld W a r. W in n in g th e C o ld W a r w ith o u t firin g e v e n o n e b u lle t is e n o u g h to p ro v e h o w s u c c e s s fu l th e U S in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity h a s b e e n . T h e m a jo r w a rs a n d p o litic a l e v e n ts g a v e th e c h a n c e to th e U S a n d to U K to te s t a n d d e v e lo p th e ir in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s . T h e re fo r e th e ir s y s te m is w id e ly a d a p te d b y o th e r w e s te rn sta te s. 63 C H A P T E R 5 - T H E T U R K IS H S Y S T E M 5 .1 . I N T E L L I G E N C E C O M M U N I T Y IN T U R K E Y : B y la w th e p rim a ry re s p o n s ib ility fo r c o lle c tin g , a n a ly z in g a n d re p o rtin g se c u rity a n d fo re ig n in te llig e n c e re s ts w ith th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n (M IT ). T h e re a re a ls o d e p a rtm e n ta l in te llig e n c e u n its /a g e n c ie s . T h e N a tio n a l P o lic e , th e M ilita ry a n d th e G e n d a rm e h a v e th e ir o w n in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s to p e rfo rm re la te d d u tie s. U n lik e th e U .S . a n d U .K ., th e re is n o s e p a ra te te c h n ic a l a n d fo re ig n in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n a g e n c y . C o lle c tio n o f e le c tro n ic in te llig e n c e is c a rrie d o u t b o th b y M I T a n d M ilita ry e le c tro n ic in te llig e n c e u n its.^ “* C o lle c tio n o f fo re ig n in te llig e n c e is p e rfo rm e d b y M IT , th e M in is try o f F o re ig n A ffa irs (M F A ) (n o t in p ro fe s s io n a l te rm s ), a n d M ilita ry - to s o m e e x te n t. T h e G e n e ra l S e c re ta ria t o f th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il is th e m a in c o n s u m e r o f th e fin is h e d in te llig e n c e . N a t i o n a l I n t e l li g e n c e Org a n iza t io n M IT N a t i o n a l P o l i ce I n t e l li ge n c e Ge n d a rm e rie I n t e l li ge n c e M ili t a r y I n t e ll ig e n c e X X X St r a t e g i c / Fo r e i g n I n t e l li ge n c e X S e c u r i t y I n t e l li g e n c e (D o m e s t i c ) X Cr i m i n a l I n t e ll ig e n c e X S i g n a l I n t e l li g e n c e (F o r e i g n ) X X E c o n o m i c I n t e ll ig e n c e Ta b l e 5 .1 I n t e l li g e n c e Co l l e c t i o n in t h e Tu r k i s h S y s t e m 5 .1 .1 . T h e N a t io n a l I n t e llig e n c e O r g a n iz a t io n ( M İ T ) T h e L a w n u m b e re d 2 9 3 7 e m b o d ie s th e g u id in g p rin c ip le s g o v e rn in g th e p ro d u c tio n an d F a n ik B ild ir ic i, G izU K u la k la r Ü lke si, ( I s la a b u l; I lc liş ir n Y a y ın la n , 1 9 9 8 ) , p. 1 9 - 2 5 9 . T h is b o o k is th e fir s t o p e n s o u r c e o n s e c u r it y e le c t r o n ic in t e llig e n c e a c t iv it ie s o f t h e T u r k is h I n t e llig e n c e C o m m u n it y . 64 u tiliz a tio n o f n a tio n a l in te llig e n c e ; a s w e ll a s th e s tru c tu re , d u tie s a n d re s p o n s ib ilitie s o f th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n . W h ile th e L a w N u m b e re d 6 4 4 w a s e n title d a s th e " S ta tu te o f th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n " , th e L a w N u m b e re d 2 9 3 7 a m e n d s it a s th e " S ta tu te of th e S ta te In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s and th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n " . M IT U n d e rs e c re ta ry is re s p o n s ib le to th e P rim e M in is te r. T h e d e s ig n a tio n o f th e M IT U n d e rs e c re ta ry is firs t d isc u s s e d a t th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il, th e n p ro p o s e d b y th e P rim e M in is te r, an d fin a lly a p p ro v e d b y th e P re s id e n t o f th e R e p u b lic . B y th e L a w n u m b e re d 2 9 3 7 T h e M IT is a u th o riz e d to p r o d u c e s ta te w id e n a tio n a l s e c u rity in te llig e n c e re le v a n t to th e in te rn a l a n d /o r e x te rn a l a c tiv itie s , a c tu a l o r p o te n tia l, th a t m a y b e d e trim e n ta l to th e R e p u b lic o f T u rk e y . T h e in te llig e n c e p r o d u c e d b y M I T is s u b m itte d to th e P re sid e n t o f th e R e p u b lic , P rim e M in is te r, C h i e f o f th e G e n e ra l S ta ff, S e c re ta ry G e n e ra l o f th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il, a n d to o th e r re le v a n t a u th o ritie s , as m a y b e re q u ire d . T h e M IT s u b m its p ro p o s a ls , re le v a n t to th e m a n a g e m e n t o f th e in te llig e n c e fu n c tio n o f th e p u b lic e s ta b lis h m e n ts a n d in s titu tio n s , to th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il a n d to th e P rim e M in is te r. T h e M IT is a ls o a u th o riz e d to o ffe r in te llig e n c e a n d c o u n te r in te llig e n c e e x p e rtis e to th e p u b lic in stitu tio n s o n s e c u rity m a tte rs w ith in th e ir re s p e c tiv e ju ris d ic tio n , a n d m a y c o o rd in a te su c h a c tiv itie s . In a d d itio n to th e a b o v e d u tie s d e fin e d b y th e L a w , th e M I T m a y b e c a lle d u p o n to a ss u m e a d d itio n a l re s p o n s ib ilitie s p u rs u a n t to th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il d e c isio n s . 95 M I T 's o f f ic ia l w e b s it e h t t p : //w w w .m it .g o v .t r / 65 C o u n te r-in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s in T u rk e y , in c lu d e s p re v e n tio n o f th e a c tiv itie s o f fo re ig n in te llig e n c e s u p p o rtin g th e c o u n te r-e s p io n a g e e ffo rts o f th e p u b lic in s titu tio n s , a n d e x e c u tin g c o u n te r m e a su re s fo r p s y c h o lo g ic a l th re a ts p o s e d a g a in s t T u rk e y . T h e c u rre n t M IT s ta tu te , th a t is, th e L a w N u m b e re d 2 9 3 7 , fo rb id s in v o lv e m e n t o r o rie n ta tio n o f th e M IT in p u rs u it o f o b je c tiv e s o th e r th a n in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s re le v a n t to th e se c u rity o f th e S ta te a s p re s c rib e d a b o v e . T h e M IT is a u th o riz e d to b e n e fit fro m th e a rc h iv e s a n d E le c tro n ic D a ta P ro c e s s in g (E D P ) c e n te rs o f th e M in is trie s a n d o th e r p u b lic in stitu tio n s o n m a tte rs re le v a n t to its te rm s o f re fe re n c e . F ig u r e 5 .2 . S t r u c t u r e o f t h e M I T 66 S t r u c t u r e o f t h e M I T ; T h e U n d e rs e c re ta r ia t o f N a tio n a l In te lli g e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n is c o m p ris e d of th e O ffic e of th e U n d e rs e c re ta ry , th e O ffic e s of th e D e p u ty U n d e rs e c re ta rie s , D ire c to ra te s , D iv is io n s , a n d B ra n c h e s a n d o th e r u n its. T h e c e n tra l an d p ro v in c ia l o rg a n iz a tio n s a re re g u la te d and m anaged th ro u g h s ta n d in g and ad hoc d ire c tiv e s. T h e M IT is o rg a n iz e d in th e fo rm o f P rin c ip a l S e rv ic e s, A d v iso ry G ro u p s a n d A u x ilia ry S e rv ic e U n ite s , a s w e ll as in te rn a l a n d e x te rn a l o rg a n iz a tio n s , w h ic h a re m a in ta in e d d e p e n d in g o n th e e x ig e n c ie s . B e s id e th e C e n tra l O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e M IT , th e re a re th e D o m e s tic In te llig e n c e G a th e rin g C e n te rs a n d th e M IT R e s id e n c ie s a b ro a d . 5 .1 .2 . T h e N a t i o n a l P o lic e I n t e l li g e n c e : T h e N a tio n a l P o lic e a re re s p o n s ib le t o m a in ta in la w a n d o r d e r in u rb a n a re a s . A m o n g its d u tie s N a tio n a l P o lic e In te llig e n c e U n its c o lle c t in te llig e n c e o n c rim in a l a n d te r ro ris t a c tiv itie s . P o lic e in te llig e n c e m a in ly d e a ls w ith m a tte rs o f s ta te s e c u rity , o rg a n iz e d c rim e , s m u g g lin g a n d o th e r c rim in a l issu e s. T h e N a tio n a l P o lic e is o rg a n iz e d in e v e ry c ity a n d it h a s in te llig e n c e d e p a rtm e n ts a lo n g w ith o th e r p o lic e d e p a rtm e n ts in e v e ry p ro v in c e o f T urkey.A g e n e ra l d ir e c to r w h o is re s p o n s ib le t o th e M in is te r o f In te m a l A ffa irs c o m m a n d s th e N a tio n a l P o lic e . 5 .1 .3 . M i l i t a r y I n te lli g e n c e ; T u rk e y h a s re la tiv e ly s tro n g a rm e d fo rc e s. H o w e v e r it is h a rd to c la im th a t th e a b ility o f m ilita ry in te llig e n c e m a tc h e s th a t b ig m ilita ry p o w e r. T h e T u rk is h a rm e d fo rc e s a re o rg a n iz e d in a h ig h ly c e n tra liz e d c o m m a n d s tr u c tu re u n lik e th e A m e ric a n a n d B ritis h 96 B e k i r Ç ın a r , D e v le t G ü ve n liğ i, İ s tih b a r a t v e T e rö r, (A n k a r a : S a m Y a y ın la n , 1 9 9 7 ), p p . 1 7 2 -1 7 4 , 67 m ilita ry fo rc e s. A rm y , N a v y a n d A ir F o rc e s a re c o m m a n d e d b y a fo u r s ta r g e n e ra l e a c h an d all th re e fo rc e s is re s p o n s ib le to th e C h ie f o f G e n e ra l S ta ff. E ach fo rc e has its o w n in te llig e n c e s tru c tu re . T h e r e is a lso a stro n g in te llig e n c e c a d re w ith in H e a d q u a r te r s o f th e T u rk is h G e n e ra l S t a f f th a t c o o rd in a te s , p la n s a n d a n a ly z e s th e in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s o f th e a rm e d fo rc e s. A rm e d F o rc e s in te llig e n c e S c h o o l is s u b o rd in a te d to H e a d q u a rte rs o f th e G e n e ra l S taff. 5 .1 .4 . G e n d a r m e I n t e llig e n c e : T u rk is h G e n d a rm e is a s e c u rity fo rc e in a m ilita ry s tru c tu re th a t m a in ta in s la w a n d o rd e r in ru ra l a re a s . C o m m a n d e d b y a fo u r s ta r g e n e ra l, th e g e n d a rm e s e rv e s u n d e r th e M in is t e r o f In te rio r A ffa irs . G e n d a rm e fo rc e s m a in ta in a s tr o n g in te llig e n c e s tru c tu re to s u p p o rt its c o m b a t a g a in st te rro ris m a n d o rg a n iz e d c rim e . L ik e th e p o lic e fo rc e s . G e n d a rm e h a s in te llig e n c e u n its a lo n g w ith o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts in e v e ry c ity o f T u rk e y . 5 .2 . O V E R S I G H T A N D A C C O U N T A B I L T Y O F I N T E L L I G E N C E C O M M U N I T Y T h e la w n u m b e re d 2 9 3 7 " S ta tu te o f th e S ta te In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e s a n d th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n " d o e s n o t p ro v id e an o v e rs ig h t a g e n c y in d e p e n d e n t fro m th e c h a in o f c o m m a n d . T h e re is n o e x te rn a l o v e rs ig h t, c o n tro l o r p e rfo rm a n c e re v ie w a g e n c y o v e r th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity . T h e re a re n u m e ro u s c o m m itte e a n d c o m m is s io n s w ith in th e s tr u c tu re o f th e T u rk is h P a rlia m e n t. B u t n o n e o f th e m is re la te d to in te llig e n c e . T h u s in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity in T u rk e y , e x c e p t fo r its in te rn a l c o n tro l m e c h a n ism , is n o t o v e rs e e n . ’ ’ B e k i r C in a r , D e v le t G ü v e n liğ i, İ s tih b a r a t v e T e rö r, (A n k a r a : S a m Y a y in la r i) , 1 9 9 7 , p p . 1 7 0 - 1 7 2 . 68 5 .3 . C O O R D I N A T I N G I N T E L L I G E N C E A N D P O L I C Y M A K I N G : 5 .3 .1 . T h e N a t io n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c il : A c c o rd in g to a rtic le 118 o f th e C o n s titu tio n , N S C h a s te n m e m b e rs . T h e P re s id e n t o f th e T u rk ish R e p u b lic is h e a d o f th e N S C . T h e re m a in in g n in e m e m b e rs a re th e P rim e M in is te r, M in is te r o f F o re ig n A ffa irs, In te rn a l A ffa irs, N a tio n a l D e fe n s e , C h ie f o f th e T u rk is h G e n e ra l S ta ff, C o m m a n d e rs o f A rm y , N a v y , A ir F o rc e a n d G e n d a rm e rie . T h e c o u n c il m a k e s d e c is io n s b y m a jo rity v o te . T h e c o u n c il is re s p o n s ib le fo r th e fo rm u la tio n o f th e p o lic y fo r th e s e c u rity o f th e s ta te a n d fo r ta k in g d e c is io n s a n d a p p lic a tio n s , a s w e ll a s fo r p re s e n tin g to th e C o u n c il o f M in is te rs its v ie w s re la te d o n h o w th e n e c e s s a ry c o o rd in a tio n c a n b e c a rrie d o u t. It m a in ly d e a ls w ith n a tio n a l s e c u rity m a tte rs , in te rn a l a n d e x te rn a l th re a ts . A c c o rd in g to th e c o n s titu tio n th e N S C a d v is e s th e g o v e rn m e n t o n n a tio n a l s e c u rity m a tte rs . T h e d e c is io n s ta k e n b y th e N S C h a s to b e c o n s id e re d b y th e g o v e rn m e n t in th e d e c is io n -m a k in g p ro cess.^* 5 .3 .2 . G e n e r a l S e c r e t a r i a t o f t h e N a t i o n a l S e c u r i t y C o u n c il : T h e S e c re ta ria t is v e s te d w ith th e re s p o n s ib ility o f c a rry in g o u t su rv e y s, re s e a rc h a n d in v e s tig a tio n s in to m a tte rs re la te d to th e d u tie s o f th e S e c u rity C o u n c il, a n d to p re s e n t its c o n c lu s io n s a n d p ro p o s a ls to th e C o u n c il. T h e s e c re ta ria t se ts all th e in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n ts a n d p rio ritie s . 5 .3 .3 . N a t i o n a l I n t e l li g e n c e C o o r d i n a t i o n C o m m i t te e ; M ilita ry a n d c iv il in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n ts a re fo rm u la te d b y th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e C o o r d in a tio n C o m m itte e . T h is c o m m itte e in c lu d e s m e m b e rs fro m th e s t a f f o f th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity C o u n c il, to w h ic h it is d ire c tly re s p o n s ib le . T h e c o n s titu tio n o f th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e C o o rd in a tio n B o a rd 98 A . Ş e r e f G ö z ü b ü jâ ik , T ü r k iy e u in İd a r i Y a p ıs ı, (E s k iş e h ir : A n a d o lu Ü n iv e r s it e s i y a y ın la n , 1 9 9 5 ) , p . 5 6 . 69 (M IK K ), e s ta b lis h e d w ith th e L a w N u m b e re d 6 4 4 o f 1 9 6 5 , h a s b e e n c a rrie d o v e r to th e L a w N u m b e re d 2 9 3 7 w ith o u t a n y a lte ra tio n . T h e M IK K is a u th o riz e d to m a in ta in c o o rd in a tio n a m o n g th e p u b lic o ffic e s in in te llig e n c e g a th e rin g e ffo rts, a n d to fo rm u la te re c o m m e n d a tio n s in d ire c tin g th e sa m e. F i g u r e 5 .2 . I n t e l l i g e n c e in p r o c e s s w h i l e m a k in g p o li c y A s d e p ic te d in fig u re 5 .2 ., M I T p ro v id e s in te llig e n c e to th e N S C a n d th e C o u n c il o f M in is te rs . S in c e th e e le c te d g o v e rn m e n t is u ltim a te ly h e ld re s p o n s ib le fo r p o lic y m a k in g a n d im p le m e n tin g , it ta k e s in to c o n s id e ra tio n re c o m m e n d a tio n s g iv e n b y N S C and in te llig e n c e in p u ts p ro v id e d b y th e M IT . T h is is th e fo rm a l p ro c e s s d e fin e d b y th e c o n s titu tio n a n d law . 99 T uncay Ö zkan G iz li S e r v isin T arih i: M IT , (İ s ta n b u l: A D Y a y ın c ılık , M illiy e t K ita p la r ı, 1 9 9 6 ) , p . 2 7 7 . 70 C H A P T E R 6 - C O M P A R IS O N O F T H E S Y S T E M S 6 .1 . THE M A IN D IF F E R E N C E S BETW EEN THE U .K .- U .S .A . AND THE T U R K IS H S Y S T E M S : 6 .1 .1 . S tr u c tu r e o f t h e I n t e llig e n c e C o m m u n itie s T h e w o r l d ’s in te llig e n c e , e s p io n a g e , a n d c o v e rt a c tio n p ro g ra m s m a y b e sa id to fo llo w th re e d is tin c t o rg a n iz a tio n a l p a tte rn s ; th e A m e ric a n , th e S o v ie t (to ta lita ria n ), a n d th e B ritis h (p a rlia m e n ta ry ) s y s te m s .’”’’ S im ila ritie s e x is t a m o n g th e m y e t d is tin c tio n s a re sh a rp . In th e U .S . " in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s w e re s h a p e d b y in d iv id u a ls w h o u n d e rs to o d th e m e c h a n ic s o f to ta lita ria n is m a n d w a n te d n o n e o f it h e r e " .'” ' M o s t c o u n trie s h a v e a tig h tly c o n ta in e d and h ie ra rc h ic a lly o rg a n iz e d in te llig e n c e se rv ice . In th e U n ite d S ta te s, h o w e v e r, p lu ra lis m - th a t is, m u ltip le c e n te rs o f p o w e r- c h a ra c te riz in g its p o litic a l s y s te m is re fle c te d in its in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity a s w e ll. C o m p e titio n w ith in th e c o m m u n ity le a d s to a w id e r a rra y o f c o lle c tio n o p e ra tio n s , s h a rp e n s m in d s, k e e p s th e a n a ly sts h o n e st, a llo w s p o lic y -m a k e rs a b e tt e r s e n s e o f o p tio n s a n d m o s t im p o rta n tly , o ffe rs v ita l s a fe g u a rd s a g a in st a c o n c e n tra tio n o f p o w e r th a t c o u ld e v o lv e in to th e c re a tio n o f a s e c re t p o l i c e .'”^ " C o m b in in g d o m e s tic a n d fo re ig n in te llig e n c e fu n c tio n s c re a te s th e p o s s ib ility th a t d o m e s tic la w e n fo rc e m e n t w ill be in fe c te d by th e se c re c y , d e c e p tio n , an d ru th le s s n e s s th a t in te rn a tio n a l e s p io n a g e re q u ire s. D iv id in g th e re s p o n s ib ilitie s a m o n g d iffe re n t a g e n c ie s re d u c e s th a t r i s k . . . " '”^ It is s u re ly n o a c c id e n t th a t th e R u s s ia n S u a t İ lh a n , ‘ is t ih b a r a t : G i z i l G ü ç '.S tr a te ji n o . 9 5 /3 , p .9 0 . S te w a r t A . B a k e r , 'S h o u ld S p ie s B e C o p s ? ', F o r e ig n P o lic y n o . 9 7 , ( W in t e r 1 9 9 4 - 9 5 ) p . 3 6 . L o c h K . J o h n s o n , ‘ S tr a te g ic I n t e llig e n c e : A n A m e r ic a n P e r s p e c t iv e ’, in A . S tu a r t P a r s o n ( e d .) a n d In te llig e n c e In A C h a n g in g W o rld: N e w P e r s p e c tiv e s F o r The 1 9 9 0 s S t e w a r t A . B a k c r ,o p .c it ., p . 3 7 . 71 S e c u r ity ( L o n d o n : F r a n k C a s s , 1 9 9 1 ) , p .5 2 . d e m o c ra ts w h o h e lp e d b re a k u p th e S o v ie t U n io n a ls o s trip p e d th e K G B o f its in te rn a l s e c u rity d u tie s -a d o p tin g , in e s se n c e , a n A m e ric a n s y ste m o f d iv id e d r e s p o n s ib ili ty .'”'' In th e U .S . th e C IA c o n tin u e s to sit a t th e c o rn e r o f a n e la b o r a te c o m p le x o f s o m e d o z e n s e p a ra te in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n s . E a c h h a s a s p e c ific ro le a n d a c a re tlilly g u a rd e d a re a o f o p e ra tio n s . T h e d ir e c to r o f c e n tra l in te llig e n c e is b o th h e a d o f th e C IA and th e P r e s id e n t ’s p rin c ip a l in te llig e n c e a d v ise r. In th e la tte r jo b , th e d ire c to r th e o re tic a lly c o o rd in a te s all th e s e p a ra te in te llig e n c e u n its , s e ttin g th e ir re q u ire m e n ts , b u d g e ts , a n d o p e ra tio n a l a s s ig n m e n ts . In re a lity m a n y o f th e m a jo r u n its in th e s y s te m su c h a s th e D e fe n s e In te llig e n c e A g e n c y a n d th e N a tio n a l S e c u rity A g e n c y /C e n tra l S e c u rity S e rv ic e , b o th p a rts of th e D e p a rtm e n t of D e fen se- o p e ra te in q u a si in d e p e n d e n c e . T h e N a tio n a l S e c u rity A g e n c y , w h ic h e n g a g e s in c o d e b re a k in g a n d c o d e m a k in g , is m u c h la rg e r in s t a f f siz e a n d b u d g e t th a n th e C IA . T h e m ilita ry a ls o m a in ta in s a m a jo r ta c tic a l in te llig e n c e c a p a b ility t o a s s is t field c o m m a n d e rs in m a k in g o n th e s p o t d e c isio n s . O th e r m a jo r u n its in th e U .S . in te llig e n c e s y s te m in c lu d e s th e S ta te D e p a r tm e n t’s B u re a u o f In te llig e n c e a n d R e s e a rc h , th e D e p a rtm e n t o f T re a s u ry , th e F B I, a n d th e D ru g E n f o rc e m e n t A d m in is tra tio n o f th e D e p a r tm e n t o f J u s tic e . T h e A m e ric a n m o d e l in flu e n c e d th e in te llig e n c e s tru c tu re s o f th o s e c o u n trie s w h e re th e U .S .A . w a s d o m in a n t a t th e e n d o f W W I I , su c h a s G e rm a n y , J a p a n , S o u th K o re a , a n d T a iw a n . In c o n tr a s t to th e fe d e ra te d A m e ric a n in te llig e n c e s tru c tu re , th e ty p ic a l to ta lita ria n s e tu p is h ig h ly c e n tra liz e d . In th e S o v ie t U n io n , fo r e x a m p le , th e p o w e r o f th e K G B p e rv a d e d e v e ry a s p e c t o f n a tio n a l life . Its d ire c to r w a s g e n e ra lly a p o w e rfu l m e m b e r o f th e P o litb u ro (th e g o v e rn in g p o litic a l c o m m itte e o f th e U S S R ). T h e K G B h a d tw o c h ie f d ire c to rie s . T h e m o s t im p o rta n t w a s th e F irs t D ire c to ra te , w h ic h w a s re s p o n s ib le fo r lOd 72 fo re ig n in te llig e n c e g a th e rin g . The Second D ir e c to r a te ’s p rin c ip a l re s p o n s ib ilitie s in v o lv e d p ro v id in g c o u n te re s p io n a g e p ro te c tio n to th e re g im e a n d re c u iritin g fo re ig n a g e n ts w ith in th e S o v ie t U n i o n . M o s t E a s te rn E u ro p e a n g o v e rn m e n ts fo llo w e d th e KGB m o d e l in th e ir in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n s . C h in a , C u b a , a n d m a n y M id d le E a s t c o u n trie s s u c h a s S y ria a n d Ira q still d o . T h e th ird m o d e l o f in te llig e n c e s y s te m s is th e B ritis h , a c o n fe d e ra tio n o f a g e n c ie s c o o rd in a te d b y a c a b in e t s u b c o m m itte e a n d a c c o u n ta b le to th e c a b in e t a n d p rim e m in iste r. T h e tw o p rin c ip a l u n its a re th e S e c re t In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e a n d th e S e c u rity S e rv ice . W ith s o m e n a tio n a l v a ria tio n s , th e in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s o f F ra n c e , Italy , Isra e l, and th e m e m b e rs of C o m m o n w e a lth of N a tio n s fo llo w th e B r itis h p a tte rn of o r g a n iz a tio n .'“^ T h e T u rk is h In te llig e n c e S y s te m is s o m e w h e re b e tw e e n th e B ritis h a n d th e S o v ie t s y s te m s. T h e re g im e is a p a rlia m e n ta ry d e m o c ra tic re g im e . E v e ry fu n c tio n o f th e g o v e rn m e n t is c lo s e ly w a tc h e d b y th e T u rk is h G ra n d N a tio n a l A s s e m b ly (T G N A ). In th is re s p e c t th e s y s te m lo o k s lik e th e B ritis h (p a rlia m e n ta ry ) sy s te m . H o w e v e r, a n e x c e p tio n is m a d e w ith in th e p a rlia m e n ta ry s y ste m fo r th e n a tio n a l s e c u rity o rg a n iz a tio n s a n d c o n se q u e n tly fo r th e N a tio n a l In te llig e n c e O rg a n iz a tio n (M IT ). U n lik e th e B ritis h sy s te m , M IT is a c c o u n ta b le to th e P rim e M in is te r. M IT c o m b in e s s e c u rity and fo re ig n in te llig e n c e in o n e h a n d . T h e re e x is ts n o in d e p e n d e n t o r p a rlia m e n ta iy o v e rs ig h t o v e r M IT . 105 J o h n J. D z i a k , ‘T h e S o v i e t S y s t e m o f S e c u r i t y a n d I n t e l l i g e n c e ’ , i n A . S t u a r t P a r s o n ( e d . ) In te llig e n c e In A C h a n g in g W o rld: N e w P e r s p e c tiv e s F o r T he 1 9 9 0 s 45. 73 S e c u r ity a n d (L o n d o n : F r an k C a s s , 1 9 9 1 ), p p . 2 5 - 6 .1 .2 . T h e P la c e G iv e n t o F o r e ig n I n te llig e n c e w it h in t h e I n t e llig e n c e C o m m u n it y : F o r a stro n g fo re ig n p o lic y - m a k in g a n d im p le m e n ta tio n th e r e is a g r e a t n e e d fo r in te llig e n c e a p p a ra tu s . T h e U .S .A . an d th e U .K . h a v e g iv e n s ig n ific a n t im p o rta n c e to fo re ig n /s tra te g ic in te llig e n c e w ith in th e ir in te llig e n c e c o m m u n itie s . In th e U .S .A ., w h ile C IA g a th e rs a n d a n a ly z e s fo re ig n h u m a n in te llig e n c e , th e N S A p ro v id e s te c h n ic a l fo re ig n in te llig e n c e . In th e U .K . a s y s te m s im ila r to th e o n e in th e U .S . e x ists. S e c re t In te llig e n c e A g e n c y (S IS ) p ro v id e s fo re ig n h u m a n in te llig e n c e a n d c o n d u c ts c o v e rt o p e ra tio n s, G o v e rn m e n t C o m m u n ic a tio n H e a d q u a rte rs (G C H Q ) c o lle c ts a n d a n a ly z e s fo re ig n s ig n a ls in te llig e n c e . B o th c o u n trie s h a v e s e p a ra te se c u rity in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n s to d e a l w ith in te rn a l th r e a ts a n d c o u n te rin te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s. US UK S E C U R I TY I N TE L L I G E N C E F O R EI G N I N TE L L I G E N C E CO M M U N I C A TI O N / E LE C TR O N I C I N T. F in Federal Bureau of Investigation SS Security Service CIA Central Intelligence Agency NSA National Security A gency SIS Secret Intelligence Service G CHQ G overnm ent C om m unication Headquarters M IT Milli İstihbarat Teşkilatı Tu r k e y T a b i c 6 .1 . I n t c ll ii 'c n c c A g e n c ie s U n lik e m o s t o f its a llie s a n d c o m p e tito rs , T u rk e y d o e s n o t h a v e a n a g e n c y d e d ic a te d to g a th e rin g s o le ly fo re ig n in te llig e n c e . M o r e s p e c ific a lly , T u r k e y d o e s n o t h a v e th e e q u iv a le n t o f th e U n ite d S ta te s ' C e n tra l In te llig e n c e A g e n c y o r th e U n ite d K in g d o m 's S e c re t In te llig e n c e S e rv ic e . In T u rk e y th e w h o le in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s a re c o n d u c te d u n d e r o n e o rg a n iz a tio n . M IT is h e ld re s p o n s ib le fo r all k in d s o f in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n a n d a n a ly s is. N a tu ra lly th is c a u se s b ig g a p s b e tw e e n th e a c tu a l n e e d a n d p r o v is io n o f fo re ig n in te llig e n c e . I f th e r e h a d 106 M ic h a e l H e r m a n , o p . c il., p p .2 4 , 2 2 6 . 74 b e e n a s e p a ra te fo re ig n /s tra te g ic in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n , T u rk e y w o u ld h a v e b e e n m u c h m o re s u c c e s s fu l in m a k in g a n d im p le m e n tin g fo re ig n p o lic y . T h e s e rio u s n e s s o f in te rn a l th r e a ts a n d th e iss u e o f te rro ris m h a v e led M I T to a s s ig n n u m b e r o n e p rio rity to d o m e s tic s e c u rity m a tte rs. T h u s all in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s h a v e b e e n s h a p e d b y d o m e s tic s e c u rity c o n c e rn s. In fac t, a s e p a ra te fo re ig n in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n th a t is in d e p e n d e n t o f all d o m e s tic iss u e s a n d c o n c e rn s w o u ld c o n trib u te m u c h to T u rk e y ’s n a tio n a l in te re s ts . A s n o te d e a rlie r, d o m e s tic a n d fo re ig n in te llig e n c e a re th e a s sig n e d re s p o n s ib ilitie s o f M IT , w h e re a s in m o st d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s th e s e ta s k s a re u s u a lly d iv id e d b e tw e e n s e p a r a te a g e n c ie s. In its c u rre n t fo rm , M IT is a ty p ic a l security in te llig e n c e a g e n c y , j u s t lik e th e U K ’s S e c u rity S e rv ic e (M I 6 ) w h ic h g a th e rs s e c u rity in te llig e n c e w ith in a n d o u ts id e o f th e U K o r A m e ric a ’s F B I. W h a t a b o u t p o litic a l, e c o n o m ic , te c h n o lo g ic , in te llig e n c e a n d a s s e s s m e n t o n fo re ig n m a tte rs? W h o is g o in g to m e e t th e n e e d fo r fo re ig n /s tra te g ic in te llig e n c e ? A s n o te d b y a d ip lo m a t, “ T u rk e y is n o t s u c c e s s fu l in g a th e rin g fo re ig n in te llig e n c e .” ' ”^ In fa c t th e re h a s b e e n a h e a v y d e p e n d e n c e o n W e s te rn a llie s in fo re ig n in te llig e n c e . T h e re fo re , T u rk e y needs new s tra te g ic in te llig e n c e c o n c e p ts , p la n s, p e rs o n n e l and o r g a n iz a tio n b e fo re e n te rin g th e n e w m il le n n iu m .'”* 6 .1 .3 . O v e r s ig h t a n d A c c o u n t a b ilit y o f t h e I n t e llig e n c e C o m m u n it y : F o r th e p u b lic , o n e o f th e m o st tro u b lin g a s p e c ts o f in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s is th e ir p e rc e iv e d la c k o f a c c o u n ta b ility . O p e ra tin g in se c re c y , in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s a re s e e n n o t K a in r a n tn a n , Di^· P o litik a ( A n k a r a ; Ö lü k e n Y a y ı n l a n , 1 9 9 4 ) , p .2 6 . M e h m e t A t a y , ' S t r a t e j i k U l u s a l G ü v e n l i k İ s t ih b a r a t ı' , 75 S tr a te ji no: 9 6 /1 , p p . 9 1 -9 2 . s im p ly a s m y s te rio u s , b u t o fte n u n c o n tro lle d . C o m p a re d w ith th e o th e r in s titu tio n s o f th e g o v e rn m e n t, in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s p o s e u n iq u e d iffic u ltie s w h e n it c o m e s to p ro v id in g a c c o u n ta b ility . T h e y c a n n o t d isc lo s e th e ir a c tiv itie s t o th e p u b lic w ith o u t d is c lo s in g th e m to th e ir ta r g e ts a t th e sa m e tim e . A s a re s u lt, in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s a re n o t s u b je c t to th e s a m e rig o rs o f p u b lic o r c o n g re s s io n a l/p a rlia m e n ta ry d e b a te o r th e sa m e s c ru tin y b y th e m e d ia a s o th e r g o v e rn m e n t a g e n c ie s. T h e ir b u d g e ts a re s e c re t; th e ir o p e ra tio n s a re s e c re t; th e ir a s s e s s m e n ts a re se c re t. Co n gre s sio n a l/ P a rlia m e n t a ry O ve rs ig h t Senate Select Com m ittee on Intelligence (SSCI) House Perm anent Select Com m ittee on Intelligence (HPSCI) Other Com m ittees U.S . UK The Intelligence and Security Com m ittee CAN AD A The Security and Intelligence and Review Com m ittee (S IR C )___________________________________________ A U S TR A L I A Parliam entary Joint Com m ittee on ASIO TU R K E Y Ex e c u t i ve O ve rs ig h t President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB) President's Intelligence O versight Board (iOB) Office of M anagem ent and Budget (0 M B )________________________________ Com m issioners Com m issioners Inspector G eneral of Intelligence and Security___________________________ Security Appeals Tribunal NONE NONE T a b ic 6 .2 . E x t e r n a l O v e r s ig h t o f t h e I n t e l lig e n c e A g e n c ie s In te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s , h o w e v e r, a re in s titu tio n s w ith in a d e m o c ra tic fo rm of g o v e rn m e n t, re s p o n s ib le n o t o n ly to th e P re s id e n t/P r im e M in is te r, b u t to th e e le c te d re p re s e n ta tiv e s o f th e p e o p le , a n d , u ltim a te ly , to th e p e o p le th e m s e lv e s . T h e y a re h a n d ed b y t h e ta x p a y e rs . T o so lv e th is d ile m m a , sp e c ia l o v e rs ig h t a rra n g e m e n ts fo r in te llig e n c e h a v e b e e n e s ta b lis h e d w ith in th e E x e c u tiv e a n d L e g is la tiv e b ra n c h e s o f th e U S A a n d th e U K . A s s h o w n in ta b le 6 .2 ., b o th th e U K a n d th e U S in te llig e n c e c o m m u n itie s a re s u b je c t to 76 e x te rn a l o v e rs ig h t fro m th e E x e c u tiv e a n d L e g is la tiv e b ra n c h e s . In U S , fo r e x a m p le , in th e C o n g re ss , sp e c ia l c o m m itte e s in e a c h H o u s e a re c h a rg e d w ith th e o v e rs ig h t fu n c tio n , s e rv in g a s s u rro g a te s fo r th e ir re s p e c tiv e b o d ie s a n d fo r th e p u b lic as w e ll. W ith in th e E x e c u tiv e b ra n c h . In s p e c to rs G e n e ra l have been e s ta b lis h e d w ith in th e a g e n c ie s th e m se lv e s o r w ith in th e ir p a re n t o rg a n iz a tio n s . T h e W h ite H o u s e a ls o h a s an in te llig e n c e o v e rs ig h t o ffic e . B e c a u s e o f th e n e e d fo r se c re c y , th e s e b o d ie s n o rm a lly c a rry o u t th e ir o v e rs ig h t fu n c tio n s in p riv a te , re p o rtin g as n e c e s s a ry a n d a p p ro p ria te to th e p u b lic w i th o u t e x p o sin g th e in te llig e n c e a c tiv itie s th e y a re o v e rs e e in g . In T u rk e y , h o w e v e r, th e re is n o su c h e x te rn a l o v e rs ig h t fro m e ith e r L e g is la tiv e o r E x e c u tiv e b ra n c h e s . T h e re fo re th e q u a lity , q u a n tity and adequacy o f in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n , a n a ly sis, c o u n te rin te llig e n c e , a n d o th e r fu n c tio n s o f th e T u rk is h in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity c a n n o t b e a sse ss e d . C o n s e q u e n tly th e re is n o fe e d b a c k to im p ro v e th e s y s te m to th e le v e l o f c o n te m p o ra ry in te llig e n c e s e rv ic e s . 6 . 1 .4 . C o o r d in a t in g I n t e llig e n c e a n d P o lic y M a k in g : In te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s c a n n o t o p e ra te in a v a c u u m . L ik e a n y o th e r s e rv ic e o rg a n iz a tio n , in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s m u st h a v e g u id a n c e fro m th e p e o p le th e y se rv e . T h e y e x is t a s a to o l o f g o v e rn m e n t to g a th e r a n d a s s e ss in fo rm a tio n , a n d i f th e y d o n o t re c e iv e d ire c tio n , c h a n c e s a re g r e a te r th a t re s o u rc e s w ill b e m is d ire c te d a n d w a ste d . In te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s n e e d to k n o w w h a t in fo rm a tio n to c o lle c t a n d w h e n it is n e e d e d . T h e y n e e d to k n o w i f th e ir p ro d u c ts a re u se fu l a n d h o w th e y m ig h t b e im p ro v e d to b e tte r s e rv e p o lic y m a k e rs . G u id a n c e m u st c o m e fro m th e to p . P o lic y m a k e r d ire c tio n sh o u ld b e b o th th e fo u n d a tio n a n d th e c a ta ly s t fo r th e w o rk o f th e In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity . 77 A s s ta te d p re v io u s ly , th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity d o e s n o t e x ist fo r its o w n sa k e . The c o m m u n ity , lik e o th e r o rg a n s o f s ta te , has c e rta in fu n c tio n s to fu lfill. The in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity is n o t a b o v e th e im p o rta n c e o f p r o p e r c o o rd in a tio n . A w e ll p la n n e d , laid o u t a n d p rio ritiz e d in te llig e n c e re q u ire m e n t w ill g u id e th e in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity a n d w ill, in re tu rn , p ro v id e c le a r c u t in fo rm a tio n th a t p o lic y m a k e rs n e e d . In T u rk e y , a lth o u g h th e re a re n e c e s sa ry o rg a n iz a tio n s , s o m e b e lie v e th a t th is c o o rd in a tio n fu n c tio n d o e s n ’t w o rk p r o p e r l y . M o r e o v e r , th e A d v is e r to th e P re s id e n t o n s e c u rity a n d in te llig e n c e u rg e s th a t a n e w in te llig e n c e c o o rd in a tio n s y s te m s h o u ld b e c re a te d no 6 .2 . C O N C L U S I O N : T h r o u g h o u t th e C o ld W a r, T u rk is h fo re ig n p o lic y w a s ty p ic a lly in s u la r an d p a ssiv e . T u rk e y fo c u s e d its e n e rg y o n in te rn a l d e v e lo p m e n t a n d s o u g h t to a v o id fo re ig n te n s io n s th a t c o u ld d iv e rt it fro m th a t g o a l. T h e re fo re T u rk e y d id n o t n e e d to c o lle c t fo re ig n in te llig e n c e in a n y s ig n ific a n t w a y . In s te a d it h e a v ily re lie d o n in te llig e n c e p ro v id e d b y N A T O s ta te s. A fte r th e C o ld W a r T u rk e y s ta rte d to fo llo w a ra th e r a c tiv is t fo re ig n p o lic y . T h e re a s o n s fo r T u r k e y ’s g r e a te r a s s e rtiv e n e s s a re v a rio u s a n d o v e rla p p in g : m o re p ro sp e rity a b e tte r-e q u ip p e d a n d m o re e x p e rie n c e d m ilita ry , th e d e c lin e o f n e ig h b o rin g s ta te s, g re a te r re g io n a l o p p o rtu n ity , a n d a g r e a te r s e n se o f p o lic y in te rd e p e n d e n c e m a rk e d b y th e e n d in g o f re s tra in ts im p o s e d b y th e C o ld W a r. B ir M İT M e n su h ıın tın A n ıla r ı, ( İ s l î i n b u l : A D B ir G iz li S e r v isin T arihi: M IT , ( İ s t a n b u l : A İ l h a n , ‘ i s t i h b a r a t : G i z i l G ü ç ’, S tr a te ji n o . 9 5 / 3 , M e h m e t E y m ü r , y 4 /7 a //z .· Y a y ın c ılık , M illiy e t Y a y ın la r ı, 1 9 9 1 ), p. 4 2 , T u n ca y Ö zk a n , D Y a y ın c ılık , M illiy e t K ita p la r ı, 1 9 9 6 ), pp. 2 7 6 - 2 7 ., S u at p .8 8 . 78 S in c e 1 9 9 3 , T u rk is h fo rc e s h a v e p a rtic ip a te d in n u m e ro u s p e a c e k e e p in g , p e a c e m o n ito rin g , a n d re la te d o p e ra tio n s , in S o m a lia , B o sn ia , A lb a n ia , G e o rg ia , H e b ro n , K u w a it (th e U N Ira q -K u w a it O b s e rv a tio n M is s io n ), M a c e d o n ia , a n d P a k is ta n (tra in in g A fg h a n re fu g e e s o n m in e c le a rin g ). A s a re s u lt o f a n o th e r T u rk is h in itia tiv e . Sev eral B a lk a n s ta te s a g re e d in S e p te m b e r 1998 to se t u p a B a lk a n p e a c e k e e p in g fo rc e to b e d e p lo y e d in N A T O o r W E U le d o p e ra tio n s s a n c tio n e d b y th e U N o r th e O rg a n iz a tio n fo r S e c u rity an d C o o p e ra tio n in E u r o p e (O S C E ). T u rk e y a ls o p ro p o s e d a sim ila r fo rc e fo r th e C a u c a s u s an d a n a v a l p e a c e k e e p in g fo rc e fo r th e B la c k S ea. In th e B a lk a n s , T u rk e y e s ta b lis h e d w o rk in g re la tio n s w ith all th e s ta te s o f th e re g io n . It d e v e lo p e d c lo s e tie s w ith A lb a n ia , M a c e d o n ia a n d B o sn ia . D is in te g ra tio n o f S o v ie t U n io n let T u rk e y e x p lo it o p p o rtu n itie s in th e re g io n . It h a s d e v e lo p e d c lo s e tie s w ith th e T u rk ic S ta te s o f th e fo rm e r S o v ie t U n io n . T u rk e y needs to have an in te llig e n c e agency w h ic h p ro v id e s n e c e s s a ry in te llig e n c e in fo rm u la tin g (a n d s o m e tim e s in im p le m e n tin g ) its fo re ig n , e c o n o m ic a n d m ilita ry p o lic ie s. T u rk e y c a n n o t e x p e c t a c o n tin u a tio n o f th e g e n e ro u s in te llig e n c e sh a rin g o f p a st. T u rk is h In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity n e e d s a s tro n g fo re ig n in te llig e n c e agency. M IT and o th e r in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s m ig h t c o n tin u e w ith th e ir s e c u rity in te llig e n c e w o rk , o r e v e n it c a n b e in c re a s e d as th e c irc u m s ta n c e s d ic ta te . H o w e v e r, n o th in g w ill m a tc h o r fu lfill th e fo re ig n in te llig e n c e re q u ir e m e n ts th a t a re e ss e n tia l to p u rs u e a n e ffe c tiv e fo re ig n p o lic y . M I T is c o n s id e re d a s a n a g e n c y th a t a lso p ro d u c e s s tra te g ic /fo re ig n in te llig e n c e a s w e ll as s e c u rity in te llig e n c e . In fac t, b y th e tim e M I T h a s b e c o m e a se c u rity in te llig e n c e a g e n c y lik e G e rm a n y 's B fV , U n ite d S ta te s' F B I, G re a t 110 M e h m e t A t a y , 'S t r a t e j ik U l u s a l G ü v e n l i k is t ih b a r a t ı'. 79 S tr a te ji no: 9 6 /1 , p. 9 2 . B rita in 's M IS . T hese a re s e c u rity in te llig e n c e a g e n c ie s g a th e rin g in te llig e n c e and c o n d u c tin g o p e ra tio n s m a in ly in th e ir h o m e la n d a s w e ll a s a b ro a d . In T u rk e y th e r e a re fo u r in te llig e n c e u n its c o lle c tin g s e c u rity in te llig e n c e , w h e re a s o n ly a b r a n c h o f M I T is g a th e rin g fo re ig n in te llig e n c e . E v e n fo re ig n in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n is ta s k e d fo r s e c u rity c o n c e rn s . T u r k e y ’s in te rn a l a n d e x te rn a l s e c u rity c o n c e rn s d ic ta te h a v in g a s tro n g s e c u rity in te llig e n c e o rg a n iz a tio n . In re c e n t y e a rs T u rk is h s e c u rity fo rc e s m a d e a s u c c e ss fu l s tru g g le a g a in s t te rro ris t a c tiv itie s. In te llig e n c e su re ly h a d a b ig s h a re in th is s u c c e ss . T u rk e y , h o w e v e r, n e e d s e q u a lly a s tro n g fo re ig n in te llig e n c e a g e n c y to d e al w ith its n e a r a b ro a d , to p ro te c t th e rig h ts o f th e T u rk s liv in g a b ro a d , to d e te c t e arly , e m e rg in g th re a ts to th e T u rk is h N a tio n a l In te re s ts (n o t o n ly to th e T u rk is h N a tio n a l S e c u rity ) in w h e re v e r o n th e g lo b e , to p ro te c t th e rig h ts o f T u rk is h firm s a n d b u s in e s s m e n th a t a re in c re a s in g ly e n g a g in g w ith in te rn a tio n a l c o n tra c ts , to p ro v id e s tro n g and a c c u ra te in te llig e n c e e s tim a te s fo r th e p la n in g o f fo re ig n p o lic y . A tra d itio n o f e x te rn a l a n d in d e p e n d e n t o v e rs ig h t a n d p e rfo rm a n c e re v ie w s h o u ld b e in itia te d w ith in th e T u rk is h sy ste m . T h is is n o t o n ly a p r e re q u is ite o f a d e m o c ra tic re p u b lic , b u t a lso o n e o f th e e s se n tia ls o f m a in ta in in g a s tro n g n a tio n a l s e c u rity s tru c tu re . A n o th e r im p o rta n t e le m e n t o f th e m o d e rn in te llig e n c e c o m m u n itie s th a t is n o t a c k n o w le d g e d w ith in th e T u rk is h s y ste m is a s e p a ra te E le c tro n ic in te llig e n c e g a th e rin g agency. NS A C o m m u n ic a tio n s (N a tio n a l S e c u rity H e a d q u a rte rs ) in A gency) th e in U .K ., th e CSE U .S ., GCHQ (G o v e rn m e n t (C o m m u n ic a tio n s S e c u rity E s ta b lis h m e n t) in C a n a d a a re th e e x a m p le s o f s u c h a g e n c ie s th a t c o lle c t fo re ig n sig n a ls in te llig e n c e a n d c o n d u c t h ig h -te c h in te llig e n c e o p e ra tio n s . 80 W h ile s e ttin g p rio ritie s in in te llig e n c e c o lle c tio n , s e c u rity is g iv e n n u m b e r o n e p rio rity . N S C , w h ic h h a s a g r e a t ro le in d ire c tin g a n d s e ttin g in te llig e n c e g o a ls , m a in ly d e a ls w ith s e c u rity m a tte rs. D e c is io n s ta k e n b y th e C o u n c il u s u a lly d o n o t in c lu d e e c o n o m ic , fo re ig n a n d p o litic a l a n d te c h n ic a l in te llig e n c e m a tte rs. C o n trib u tio n fro m n o n -g o v e rn m e n ta l s o u rc e s s u c h a s a c a d e m ia a n d in s titu te s in to th e T u rk is h in te llig e n c e c o m m u n ity is v irtu a lly n o n e . T h u s , fre s h a n a ly sis a n d b ra in s is p re v e n te d c o n trib u tin g to th e sy ste m . To su m , T u rk is h In te llig e n c e C o m m u n ity s h o u ld be re fo rm e d in o r d e r to e n c o m p a s s th e fo llo w in g m is s io n s e ffe c tiv e ly : 1. S u p p o rt to T u rk is h d ip lo m a c y 2. S u p p o rt to m o n ito rin g o f tre a tie s a n d o th e r a g re e m e n ts 3. S u p p o rt to m ilita ry o p e ra tio n s 4. S u p p o rt to d e fe n s e p la n n in g 5. E c o n o m ic In te llig e n c e 6. C o u n te rin g a c tiv itie s a b ro a d th a t th re a te n T u rk e y 's in te re s ts . 7. S u p p o rt to c rim in a l ju s t ic e a n d re g u la to ry a g e n c ie s 8. C o lle c tin g a n d a n a ly z in g e n v iro n m e n ta l in fo rm a tio n 9. S u p p o rt to “ In fo rm a tio n W a rfa re ” " ' " I n fo r m a tio n W a r fa r e " r e fe r s to a c tiv itie s u n d e r ta k e n b y g o v e r n m e n t s , g r o u p s o r in d iv id u a ls to g a in e le c t r o n ic a c c e s s to in f o r m a t io n s y s t e m s , m a n ip u la tin g o r f a b r ic a tin g d a ta , o r p e r h a p s e v e n b r in g in g th e s y s t e m s d o w n , a s w e l l a s a c t iv it ie s u n d e r ta k e n to p r o te c t a g a in s t s u c h a c t iv it ie s . In T u r k e y , g o v e r m n e n l a n d p u b lic c o m m u n ic a t io n s , tr a n s p o r ta tio n , fin a n c ia l, energy, and o th e r in d u s tr ia l sy ste m s have b ecom e c r it ic a lly d e p e n d e n t o n a c o m p le x s e t o f in t e r c o n n e c t e d a u t o m a te d in f o r m a t io n a n d c o n t r o l s j 's te m s . M a n y o f t h e s e s y s t e m s a r c p o t e n t ia lly v u ln e r a b le to c o m p u t e r - b a s e d d is r u p tio n , m a n ip u la t io n , o r c o r r u p t io n b y h o s tile in d iv id u a ls , groups, or c o u n t r ie s . T urkey, th e r e fo r e , c o n c e p t a n d e m e r g e n c y p la n s . 81 u r g e n t ly needs an “ in f o r m a t io n w a r fa r e ” I t is o b v io u s th a t a c e n tra liz e d in te llig e n c e a g e n c y lik e M IT c a n n o t p e rfo rm all a b o v e - m e n tio n e d m iss io n s e ffe c tiv e ly . T h e re fo re a re fo rm f o r T u rk is h in te llig e n c e s y s te m is in e v ita b le . 82 B IB L IO G R A P H Y A k ç a , Ş a fa k 'E le k tro n ik İstih b a ra t T e k n o lo jis i', Strateji no; 96/1 A m e rin g e r, C h a rle s D . U.S. Foreign Intelligence, (M a s s a c h u s e tts : L e x in g to n B o o k s ), 1990. A n d re w , C h ris to p h e r ‘T h e B ritis h V ie w o f S e c u rity a n d I n te llig e n c e ’, in A. S tu a rt P a rso n (e d .) Security a nd Intelligence In A Changing World: New Perspectives For The 1990s (L o n d o n ; F ra n k C a s s ), 1 9 9 1 , pp. 10-2 5 . A ra s, B ü le n t 'D e ğ iş e n D ü n y a v e İs tih b a ra t A la n ın d a Y e n i Y ö n e lim le r', S tra te ji n o ; 9 6 /1 . 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