Helicopter Rescue Techniques - NSARA Manual

HELICOPTER RESCUE
TECHNIQUES
Civilian Public Safety and Military Helicopter Rescue Operations
National SAR Academy Training Manual

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Helicopter Rescue Techniques
Civilian Public Safety and Military Helicopter Rescue Operations
First edition
October 2013
This training manual has been prepared by the United States Department of the Interior,
National Park Service for the National SAR Academy (NSARA).
As a publication of the federal government the text within this manual is not copyrighted under
the copyright laws of the United States, however this manual does contain copyrighted images
and illustrations. Such material is protected by United States Copyright Law and may not be
reproduced without the express permission of the owner.
Written by Ken Phillips, Branch Chief of Search and Rescue, National Park Service (NPS).
The author is extremely grateful for the technical assistance of numerous individuals within the
helicopter rescue community for their personal insight and suggestions. This includes; Cedric
Smith, Engineer with CMC Rescue and helicopter SAR technician with Santa Barbara County
SAR; Jim Frank, founder of CMC Rescue for his skill as an editor; Casey Ping, Program
Manager with Travis County Starflight; Greg Sanderson, Firefighter/Paramedic and Helitac
Standardization Coordinator with Los Angeles City Fire Department Air Operations; Diana
Byrne for her editing. Additional contributions were provided by U.S. Park Police Aviation Unit,
Yosemite SAR (YOSAR), Dean Ross, NPS Deputy Chief of Emergency Services, John Evans,
NPS Park Ranger, Michael Peitz, Interagency Aviation Officer (USMC ret), Will Smith MD, and
the staff of the USMC Mountain Warfare Training Center, California.
All images credited as noted. All copyrighted images reprinted with permission.
The use of commercial products and trade names is for illustrative and educational purposes
only and does not constitute an official endorsement by the National Park Service.
Cover photo: Helicopter short-haul rescue of an Austrian climber on the 3’000 foot El Capitan
Nose Route at Yosemite National Park (CA). During the third day of his ascent on September
26, 2011, the climber, who was 2,000 feet above the floor of Yosemite Valley, clipped an
etrier, a short ladder of sewn webbing, to a metal nut wedged in a rock crack. As he stood
with his weight on the etrier, the nut pulled loose and he sustained a fall, being caught by his
belay safety line. During the fall, the etrier became wrapped around his thumb, amputating the
digit. Yosemite Search and Rescue (YOSAR) personnel Dave Pope and Jeff Webb were
inserted to the scene, in order to extract the injured climber beneath Helicopter 551 (Bell
205A-1) helicopter being piloted by Richard Shatto with assistance from helicopter crew chief
Eric Small. NPS Photo by Dov Bock.
WARNING
Helicopter rescue involves unique hazards, which can be fatal. This manual
contains information on specialized rescue techniques, and is intended for use as
a part of a training course involving closely supervised field training with qualified
instructors. A person cannot become proficient in helicopter rescue by only
reading this manual. Every rescue situation is unique, requiring size-up and
decision-making skills gained through personal experience.
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6
When to Use a Helicopter ......................................................................................................... 6
Weather and Nighttime Limitations ......................................................................................... 10
Night Rescue Operations by Helicopter ............................................................................... 10
Preplanning and Mission Planning .......................................................................................... 12
Risk Management Process ...................................................................................................... 15
U.S. Coast Guard and Operational Risk Management ........................................................ 16
GAR Risk Assessment Model .............................................................................................. 17
Public Aircraft Regulations- FAA ............................................................................................. 19
Public Aircraft ....................................................................................................................... 19
Rotorcraft External Load Operations- Public Aircraft ........................................................... 19
Mission Management .............................................................................................................. 20
Flight Following .................................................................................................................... 20
Crew Resource Management .............................................................................................. 20
Communications ...................................................................................................................... 21
Five Communication Responsibilities for All Personnel: ...................................................... 21
Hand Signals........................................................................................................................ 22
Using Direct Statements ...................................................................................................... 22
Briefing Personnel................................................................................................................ 24
Multi-Tasking........................................................................................................................ 24
Landing Zones ......................................................................................................................... 25
Rotor Wash .......................................................................................................................... 26
Hot Loading.......................................................................................................................... 27
Aircraft Weight and Balance .................................................................................................... 28
Load Calculation .................................................................................................................. 28
Helicopter Rescue Crew Configuration ................................................................................ 30
Helicopter Flight Characteristics and Limitations ..................................................................... 31
Helicopter Aerodynamics ..................................................................................................... 31
Ground Effect ....................................................................................................................... 32
Autorotation.......................................................................................................................... 32
Translational Lift................................................................................................................... 33
Density Altitude .................................................................................................................... 33
Hover Ceiling ....................................................................................................................... 33
Center of Gravity .................................................................................................................. 33
Helicopter Landings ................................................................................................................. 33
Slope Landings .................................................................................................................... 34
One-Skid Landings .............................................................................................................. 34
Toe-In Landings ................................................................................................................... 34
Hover Landings .................................................................................................................... 35
Power-On Landing ............................................................................................................... 35
Basic Helicopter Safety ........................................................................................................... 35
Preflight Briefing................................................................................................................... 35
Safety During Helicopter Operations.................................................................................... 35
Personnel Protective Equipment ............................................................................................. 36
Personal Preparedness ....................................................................................................... 39
In-Flight Emergency: Survival Plan Checklist....................................................................... 39
Emergency Water Ditching Survival Training....................................................................... 39
Patient Care and Transport Considerations ............................................................................ 40
Helicopter Rescue Techniques ................................................................................................ 42
Helicopter Hoist Rescue ...................................................................................................... 42
Hoist Cable Management ................................................................................................. 44
Hoist Cable Construction .................................................................................................. 45
Hoist Cable and Rescue Hook Assembly ......................................................................... 46
Possible Cable Damage ................................................................................................... 47
Static Discharge ............................................................................................................... 48
Line Entanglement ........................................................................................................... 49
Litter Transfer in Exposed Terrain .................................................................................... 54
Helicopter Rappel ................................................................................................................ 54
Helicopter Short-haul ........................................................................................................... 56
Short-haul Operational Hazards ....................................................................................... 60
Litter Transfer in Exposed Terrain (similar to hoist procedures) ....................................... 61
Short-haul Emergency Procedures .................................................................................. 62
Rescuer Head-to-toe Safety Checklist (HEC Techniques) ............................................... 64
Helicopter Short-Haul Checklist (Pre-Mission) ................................................................. 64
Helicopter Rescue Appliances ................................................................................................. 65
Helicopter Rescue Bags ...................................................................................................... 65
Collapsible Rescue Basket .................................................................................................. 66
Rescue Net (Billy Pugh Net) ................................................................................................ 66
Medevac Litter ..................................................................................................................... 68
Rescue Seat or Forest Penetrator (Jungle Penetrator)........................................................ 68
Tag Line/Trail Line ............................................................................................................... 70
Additional Personnel Lifting Devices .................................................................................... 70
Rescue Strop.................................................................................................................... 70
Quick Strop....................................................................................................................... 71
Rescue Evacuation Triangle (Petzl Pitagor) ..................................................................... 72
Screamer Suit................................................................................................................... 72
Hoisting Vest .................................................................................................................... 73
Post Incident Considerations ................................................................................................... 73
Helicopter Rescue Training Considerations ............................................................................ 75
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 75
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 77
References .............................................................................................................................. 81
Glossary .................................................................................................................................. 82
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 92
Appendix A- Checklist For Precision In Emergency Response Safety ................................ 92
Appendix B- Communications .............................................................................................. 94
Appendix C- Helicopter Hoist Rescue Checklists................................................................. 96
California Highway Patrol ..................................................................................................... 98
Appendix D- Airspace ........................................................................................................ 103
Appendix E- Military Rescue Helicopters ........................................................................... 106
Appendix F- U.S. Air Force Helicopter Landing Zone (HLZ) Requirements ...................... 110
Appendix G- JFIRE Manual- Helicopter Landing Zone (HLZ) Brief .................................... 112
National SAR Academy
Introduction
Helicopters provide an outstanding rescue tool, but they have specific operating
limitations. Recognize that the consequences of a poorly managed helicopter rescue
can be swift and fatal. Rescuers need to understand these limits and have the
professional discipline not to exceed them during an emergency. As accident
investigators repeatedly conclude, “self-imposed psychological pressure” causes us to
make poor decisions when adrenaline clouds our judgment. Poor decision-making is
preventable yet, tragically, it is a factor in the vast majority of helicopter rescue
accidents.
You cannot disregard the fact that a helicopter is a machine. You might expect it to
provide dependable service, but helicopters do break down, disrupting operational
plans or leaving rescuers stranded. Always be prepared with backup plans and require
field rescuers to be prepared. A helicopter is one additional operational tool for rescue,
not a panacea to be applied in every rescue situation.
Before launching a helicopter for a rescue or requesting the assistance of an outside

agency with aviation assets, make sure your decisions are not being driven by the
excitement of the moment. Rescue crews often show poor judgment by “pressing on”
in degraded operating conditions for a non-life-threatening injury that could easily
handle a delay. The option of delaying the mission in favor of safer operating conditions
is repeatedly overlooked and requires considerable discipline on the part of a rescue
team. Remarkably, accidents with the same root cause occur over and over. As
rescuers, we must learn from these mistakes and break this dangerous pattern of
repetition.
When to Use a Helicopter

Rescue helicopters may
be utilized to efficiently
extricate a subject from
an otherwise inaccessible
accident scene. Situations
that involve remote
locations with critical
injuries are very
appropriate for a
helicopter-based rescue
(Figure 1). An injured
subject can then be
transferred to a helicopter
emergency medical
services (HEMS) aircraft
or ground based
ambulance, as
appropriate, with the Figure 1- Helicopter Rescue. A twin-engine AugustaWestland (AW) Da Vinci
proper continuity of care Helicopter, developed for the high altitude requirements of Swiss rescue
to match the situation. operator REGA, responds in the mountains. Photo copyright Swiss Air-Rescue
(REGA).
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When multiple transportation options are available, rescuers should determine which
technique offers the least risk and greatest gain both for rescuers and the rescue
subject. Evaluate the totality of the circumstances surrounding the incident, including
the duration and difficulty of a conventional evacuation, rescuer and patient safety, the
severity of the patient’s injury, current and projected environmental hazards, personnel
and aircraft availability, and transport time to a definitive care facility.
The following questions can assist in the decision to use a helicopter for rescue:
• Are conditions adequate for communication with all involved rescue personnel, or do
communications barriers exist?
• Is a safe landing site available within a reasonable distance of the accident site?
• Does the urgency of the subject’s condition require getting someone to the accident
site as quickly as possible?
• Is the risk associated with traversing terrain to the accident scene greater than the
risk of using specialized helicopter rappel, short-haul, or hoisting techniques?
• Are all helicopter crewmembers proficient with the helicopter rescue technique being
considered?
• Do extreme environmental factors prevent the use of a helicopter?
• Would the immediate insertion of advanced life support (ALS) care to the scene
convert an urgent medical case to a lower priority ground evacuation?
o Insertion of a trained EMS provider, who conducts a proper assessment, may
permit appropriately downgrading the rescue plan to a ground ambulance
transport of the patient. The primary task of the rescue helicopter is locating
and assessing the patient with transport to definitive care being conducted
when justified.
Mission Decisions
1. Assess the situation: Weigh the relative level of urgency, the condition of the
rescue subject (or subjects), and stability of the incident.
2. Determine the alternatives: Review the various rescue options, including the
level of complexity and the risk involved. Greater complexity and risk add
significantly to the potential for mission failure.
3. Select an alternative: The choice of an appropriate rescue plan should be based
on the safety of rescuers rather than the safety of the subject.
4. Execute the plan: Initiate the rescue response according to established
procedures and reevaluate your ongoing actions. Avoid the “press on regardless”
mentality. If the plan is not working, change your operational response.
MILITARY SUPPORT TO CIVIL SEARCH AND RESCUE

Search and rescue of the civilian population in an emergency can be carried out by
DoD as a humanitarian and legal obligation under the overall arrangements and
principles described in the National Search and Rescue Plan (NSP). It is United States
policy, under the NSP, to use all available resources to carry out national civil SAR
responsibilities. These include Federal civil and military resources, state and local
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resources, private and volunteer resources, and resources

available through international cooperative efforts, as
appropriate.
The Air Force Rescue Coordination Center (AFRCC), located at

Tyndall Air Force Base, FL, serves as the single agency
responsible for coordinating on-land federal SAR activities in the
48 contiguous United States while also providing SAR
assistance to Mexico and Canada.
Additionally, the AFRCC will not launch a rescue helicopter for a known civilian fatality
recovery, unless the ground recovery effort would place a rescue team in potential
jeopardy. Regardless, fatality recovery requests will be evaluated on a case-by-case
basis for approval by the commanding officer of the responding SAR unit.
AFRCC MISSION GO/NO GO CRITERIA.

The mission coordinator determines that a valid distress or perceived distress situation
exists and no legal restrictions apply (Posse Comitatus, Stafford Act, etc.) Distress is
the reasonable certainty that an aircraft (or other craft) or persons is threatened by
grave and imminent danger and requires immediate assistance. The mission go/no-go
criteria are a threat to life, limb, eyesight, or undue suffering. (AFRCC OI 10-406).
A request for a military helicopter rescue

asset may require extended response time
for required command approvals, flight
crew recall, mission planning, and aircraft
preparation. This can be well mitigated
through advance planning. Initiate
personal contacts at the military unit level,
develop a formal written memorandum of
understanding (MOU) between the
requesting agency and the unit command,
arrange for familiarity flights within the
response area, and conduct training, which
develop communications and procedural
familiarity.
CASEVAC and MEDEVAC

A military medical evacuation (MEDEVAC)
is defined as the timely, efficient movement
and enroute care by medical personnel of
the wounded, injured, and ill persons, from
the battlefield and other locations to
treatment facilities. A Casualty Evacuation
(CASEVAC) is the movement of casualties
to initial treatment facilities in the combat
zone, without enroute care by medical Figure 2- Medevac Helicopter. A well-marked
UH-72A Lakota assigned to 121st Medical
personnel. The term MEDEVAC is Company. U.S. Army photo, Staff Sgt. Jon Soucy.
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routinely used interchangeably to refer to both medical evacuations and casualty

evacuations. MEDEVAC aircraft, which have medical care providers on board, are
mandated by the Geneva Convention to be unarmed and well marked (Figure 2).
The military utilizes a “9 Line MEDEVAC Format” for requesting a helicopter evacuation
on the battlefield. The format, with adaptation, can be employed during peacetime SAR
operations as well. The initial five lines are most important and adequate for launch
when calling in a MEDEVAC, the additional four lines can be relayed when aircraft are
in the air.
9 Line MEDEVAC Request Format

Line 1 Location of the pick-up site
Line 2 Radio frequency, call sign, and suffix
Line 3 Number of patients by precedence:
A - Urgent
B - Urgent Surgical
C - Priority
D - Routine
E - Convenience
Line 4 Special equipment required:
A - None
B - Hoist
C - Extraction equipment
D - Ventilator
Line 5 Number of patients:
A - Litter
B - Ambulatory
Line 6 Security at pick-up site:
N - No enemy troops in area
P - Possible enemy troops in area (approach with caution)
E - Enemy troops in area (approach with caution)
X - Enemy troops in area (armed escort required)
* In peacetime - number and types of wounds, injuries, and illnesses
Line 7 Method of marking pick-up site:
A - Panels
B - Pyrotechnic signal
C - Smoke signal
D - None
E - Other
Line 8 Patient nationality and status:
A - US Military
B - US Civilian
C - Non-US Military
D - Non-US Civilian
E – EPW (Enemy Prisoner of War)
Line 9 NBC Contamination:
N - Nuclear
B - Biological
C - Chemical
* In peacetime - terrain description of pick-up site
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M.I.S.T. Report
The M.I.S.T. Report can been incorporated into the 9 Line MEDEVAC report and
traditionally is provided following the 9 Line format.
M- Mechanism of injury (IED, gunshot wound, MVA, etc.)
I- Type of Injury (found and or suspected)
S- Signs (pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate)
T- Treatment given (ketamine, tourniquet, etc.)
A/C- Adult/Child (include age if known)
Weather and Nighttime Limitations

Daytime flight operations for most aircraft are limited by visual flight rules (VFR) basic
weather minimums include;
• One mile (1.6 km) of forward visibility
• 500 ft. (152 m) of clearance below a cloud ceiling
• 1000 ft. (300 m) above clouds
• 2000 ft. (610 m) horizontal clearance from clouds
Additionally, an exception applies to helicopters in “uncontrolled” airspace (Class G)

below 1,200 ft. (366 meters) above ground level (AGL); in these areas, helicopters “may
be operated clear of clouds if operated at a speed that allows the pilot adequate
opportunity to see any air traffic or obstruction in time to avoid a collision” (FAR Part
91.155 b.1). A helicopter being operating in Class G airspace under FAR PART
135.205 (commercial on demand operations including HEMS) must have 1/2 mile of
visibility during the day and one mile of visibility at night. Finally, check with the
supporting helicopter asset for the final word on whether they launch for a mission.
U.S. federal land management agencies (U.S. Forest Service and Department of
Interior) adhere to the following visibility and wind restrictions for “special use” missions
(e.g., mountainous flying, unimproved helispot, or less than 500 ft. [152 m] AGL)
involving light helicopters:
• Maximum sustained winds of 35 mph (30 knots)
• Wind gust spread (range from minimum to maximum) of 17 mph (15 knots)
• One-half mile (0.8 km) forward visibility.
Helicopter Night Rescue Operations

Conducting a night rescue by helicopter in a remote setting dramatically increases
operational risk. A study of HEMS accidents found that those air crashes occurring in
darkness or bad weather increased the likelihood of a fatal outcome by 95%! 1 It is
important to carefully review the option of stabilizing the subject at the scene and
initiating the rescue at daybreak. VFR night flight minimum clearances (the visual
distance minimums required for night-time flights) are three statute miles (4.8km)
forward visibility and a minimum of 500 ft. (152 m) clearance beneath clouds (FAR Part
1
Baker, Susan, et al. EMS Helicopter Crashes: What Influences Fatal Outcomes?
10 | P a g e
91.155). Furthermore, the FAA

permits a helicopter to be operated
clear of clouds “at a speed that
allows the pilot adequate opportunity
to see any air traffic or obstruction in
time to avoid a collision.” (FAR
91.155(b)(1)).
The limitations of the human eye

become more pronounced at night.
The central portion of the retina,
which is known as the fovea, is
responsible for the sharpest visual
acuity, hence “central vision” as
opposed to “peripheral vision”. Figure 3- Night Vision Goggles. Suspended from the
However, this portion of the eye front of a flight crewmember’s helmet. Image courtesy
lacks the presence of rod receptor Travis County STAR Flight, Texas.
cells, which have a higher sensitivity
to light and aid in night vision, in contrast to cones, which are the other type of receptor
cells in the eye. The foveola, or center of the fovea, lacking rods cannot function in
diminished illumination thereby creating a central blind spot in the central 1 degree of
the visual field. To overcome this limitation at night an individual should scan or look
approximately 15-20 degrees to one side, thereby placing the object of interest on that
2
part of the retina that possesses the highest density of rods.
Night vision goggles (NVG) increase the aircrew’s situational awareness, ability to
safely navigate, and dramatically decrease the associated risk (Figure 3). In
comparison to daylight operations, they do have operational limitations, including
reducing a user’s depth perception, which is an important factor during external work
such as hoist operations. While operating NVG’s it is difficult to identify suspended
wires, which are also difficult to see day or night. The goggles themselves have a
narrow 40°field of view (smaller than the normal human binocular visual field of 120°
3
[vertical] by 200° [horizontal]) , however since they are suspended over an inch from
the eye they do not restrict the user from looking below the goggles or peripherally to
the side in order to perform an unaided task.
Night vision goggles function by capturing all available existing ambient light, such as
starlight or moonlight, which is comprised of photons and converting the photons into
electrons with a photocathode tube. The electrons are then amplified and increased to
a greater number through an electrical and chemical process. Against a phosphorus
screen the amplified electrons are changed into visible light that can be seen as a
green hued image in the eyepiece. NVG’s use a green colored screen (Figure 4),
because the human eye is most sensitive to the wavelength spectrum associated with
green light. Depending upon the detectability of a missing search subject, a SAR
operator may consider delaying a search mission till darkness, based upon NVG’s
2
American Optometric Association (AOA). The Eye and Night Vision.
3
United Nations Logistics Base. Night Vision Goggles Limitations, page 2.
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being able to detect any light

source. A lighted cell phone can
easily be seen by NVG from 1.2
miles (2km) on a dark night.
Night vision devices were initially

developed in Germany during
WWII and were in common use
during the Vietnam War. 4 Initial
night vision equipment (early
1960’s) used Generation I
(1,000X) image intensifier tube
(IIT) technology, which is still
being used in many popular
consumer night vision devices.
The first true night vision goggles
were produced in the early 1980s Figure 4- Night vision image. HH-60 Pave Hawk from the
using Generation II (20,000X) 33rd Rescue Squadron takes off from Kadena Air Base,
image intensifier tube technology. Japan. U.S. Air Force photo by Staff Sgt. Lakisha A. Croley
A drawback of the Generation II
tube was that a bright light directed at it caused the tube to shut down as a self-
protecting feature. Generation III (30,000-50,000X) technology can be adversely
affected by bright lights in the field of view, which may result in the image being
obscured by an effect known as halo. Current NVG’s provide a user with 20/25 visual
5
acuity. Aircraft interiors must be appropriately configured with night-vision compatible
lighting and displays to permit NVG operations. Ground personnel, when working with
aircrews operating on NVG’s should observe conscious “light discipline”. Finally,
recurrent training with NVG’s is essential in order for aircrews to maintain operational
proficiency.
Preplanning and Mission Planning

For a helicopter rescue operation to succeed, sufficient preplanning must be done well
in advance of the initial notification. Rescue teams should develop an in-depth
knowledge of and working rapport with outside aviation resources through meetings
and advance training. As part of the pre-plan, consider preparing an aerial hazard map
for the local response area, one that identifies wires, power lines, and military
operations areas (MOA), in addition to established helispots and staging areas with
known coordinates. An aerial (aviation) hazards map of the local response area and
posted at a command post or other operational location, provides an excellent mission-
planning tool (Figure 5).
4
Globalsecurity.org website. Night Vision Goggles (NVG).
5
Harris, Kim. Director of Operations. Aviation Specialties Unlimited.
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Figure 5- Aviation Hazard Map. Gallatin National Forest. U.S. Forest Service.
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The following references (Boxes 1and 2) provide some excellent considerations and
reminders to be employed during all aviation mission-planning efforts:
Box 1. HELICOPTER RESCUE- OPERATIONAL RED FLAGS

1. Conducting a rescue with an unknown crew or aircraft
2. Exceeding the operating capabilities of the aircraft or crew
3. Improvising with an unpracticed or unrecognized technique
4. Communications issues (e.g. frequency incompatibility)
5. Becoming preoccupied with minor details
6. Inadequate leadership and failure to designate command
7. Fast operational tempo (i.e.,“mission-itis” dictates operational decision
making)
8. Failure to delegate tasks and assign responsibilities
9. Failure to communicate intent and plans
Box 2. Twelve Standard Aviation Questions

That Could Save Your Life
1. Is this flight necessary?
2. Who is in charge?
3. Have all hazards been identified and have you made them known?
4. Should you stop the operation or flight because of:
• Inadequate and unclear communications
• Hazardous weather
• Winds/Turbulence
• Insufficient or untrained personnel
• Conflicting priorities
• Deceased rescue subject
5. Is there a better way to do it?
6. Are you driven by an overwhelming sense of urgency?
7. Can you justify your actions?
8. Are other aircraft in the area?
9. Do you have an escape route?
10. Are any rules being broken?
11. Are communications getting tense?
12. Are you deviating from the assigned operation or flight?
Rescue helicopter resources are typically categorized as public safety aircraft,

helicopter EMS (HEMS), call when needed (CWN) commercial aircraft, and military
aircraft. The following list (Table 1) displays the helicopter “typing” categories, based
upon size, used for incidents involving the incident command system (ICS); 6
6
NWCG, Interagency Helicopter Operations Guide, chapter 6.
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Table 1- Helicopter Resource Typing

TYPE I TYPE II TYPE III
(Heavy) (Medium) (Light)
Sikorsky HH-60G Pave Eurocopter AS350 B3.

Eurocopter EC 145. California Highway Patrol
Hawk. 210th Rescue Squadron Travis County Starflight, Aviation Unit- Apple Valley.
training over Alaska. USAF photo. Texas. Courtesy photo. NPS photo.
Passenger Seats 15+ 9-14 4-8

Allowable Sea Level
Payload At 59° F. 5000 pounds (2268 kg) 2500 pounds (1134 kg) 1200 pounds (544 kg)
(544 Kg)
Bell 214, Sikorsky S-70
Bell Long Ranger L-3,
(UH-60/HH-60) Black Bell 212, Bell 412,
Bell 407 Eurocopter
Hawk, Augusta-Westland Eurocopter EC-145,
Example Aircraft AW 139, Sikorsky S-64 Eurocopter UH-72
AS350 B3, Eurocopter
EC-135, MD500,
Skycrane, Boeing-Vertol Lakota
MD900 Explorer
BE-234, Boeing CH-47
Risk Management Process

Assessing the perceived risk associated with an assignment as well as managing that
risk to a practical level involves a multi-step process; 7
1. Situational Awareness- knowledge, information, and perception of environment
2. Hazard Assessment- identification of risk and associated danger
3. Hazard (Risk) Controls- risk mitigation measures applied
4. Decision Point- Go/No-Go decision
5. Evaluate- monitoring
These five steps of the risk management process should be viewed as a cyclic process
(Figure 6). Upon reaching the fifth step of evaluating and monitoring the operation,
personnel should return to the first step, so that they are actually improving their
situational awareness by updating their “mental image” of the mission with more
accurate updated information. This moves personnel forward in a continuous loop,
which permits them to react to the dynamic changes occurring on an incident.
7
NWCG- Incident Response Pocket Guide, page 1.
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Figure 6- Risk Management Process.
U.S. Coast Guard and Operational Risk Management

The U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) has a
long tradition of conducting
hazardous SAR operations in the
maritime environment. Unfortunately,
between 1991 and 1993 they
experienced four major marine mishaps,
which caused the National Transportation Safety Board
(NTSB) to issue a recommendation for the agency to implement a more formal risk
assessment training program. As a result, in 1996 the USCG executed a systematic
process to continuously assess and manage risks, known as “Operational Risk
Management” (ORM). ORM identifies and controls risks in all activities by applying
appropriate management policies and procedures. As an operation progresses and
evolves, personnel should continuously employ the following key operational risk
management principles: 8
8
U.S. Coast Guard. “Operational Risk Management.” Commandant Instruction 3500.3.
16 | P a g e
1. Accept No Unnecessary Risk: SAR operations entail risk. Unnecessary risk

conveys no commensurate benefit to safety of a mission. The most logical courses of
action for accomplishing a mission are those meeting all mission requirements while
exposing personnel and resources to the lowest possible risk.
2. Accept Necessary Risk When Benefits Outweigh Costs: The process of weighing
risks against opportunities and benefits helps to maximize unit capability. Even high-risk
endeavors may be undertaken when decision-makers clearly acknowledge the sum of
the benefits exceeds the sum of the costs.
3. Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level: The appropriate level to make risk
decisions is that which most effectively allocates resources to reduce the risk, eliminate
the hazard, and implement controls. This includes ground rescue personnel scrutinizing
their own plan to request a helicopter rescue and whether it is truly appropriate. Incident
personnel developing a plan of action must ensure subordinates are aware of their own
limitations and when to refer a decision to a higher level.
4. Integrate ORM into Operations and Planning at All Levels: While ORM is critically
important in an operation’s planning stages; risk can change dramatically during an
actual mission. Incident personnel should remain flexible and integrate ORM in
executing tasks as much as in planning for them.
GAR Risk Assessment Model

The USCG employs a remarkably effective ORM tool referred to as the GAR (Green-
Amber-Red) Risk Assessment Model, which creates a GO-NO GO decision tool. The
GAR Model incorporates the opinions of multiple involved personnel, whereas other
planning tools may only incorporate input from one person.
GAR respondents independently assign a personal risk score to eight different

elements associated with a mission. The risk score is 0 (No Risk) through 10 (Maximum
Risk), which is a personal estimate of risk.
The following elements are evaluated in the GAR Model:
• SUPERVISION- The presence of qualified, accessible, and effective supervision on

the incident. A clear chain of command is in place.
• PLANNING- Adequate incident information is available and clear. There is sufficient

time to plan, operational guidelines are current, briefing of personnel is being
conducted, and team input solicited.
• CONTINGENCY RESOURCES- Backup resources available that can assist if

needed. Evaluate shared communications plan and frequencies. Has an alternative
plan been evaluated?
17 | P a g e
• COMMUNICATION- Evaluate how well personnel are briefed and communicating.

How effective is communication system and is there is an established
communication plan? Does operational environment value input from all involved?
• TEAM SELECTION- Team selection should consider the qualifications and

experience level of the individuals. Consider the experience for the mission being
performed.
• TEAM FITNESS- Consider physical and mental state of the crew. Evaluate team
morale and any distractions.
• ENVIRONMENT- Consider factors affecting performance of personnel and

equipment such as time, temperature, precipitation, topography, and altitude.
Evaluate site factors such as narrow canyons, forest canopy, technical terrain,
snow, swiftwater, etc.
• INCIDENT COMPLEXITY- Evaluate the severity, exposure time, and probability of

mishap. Assess difficulty of the mission and proficiency of personnel.
.
Several members of a team should individually complete GAR scores for a planned
task without input from fellow team members. The individual risk scores are summed to
come up with a Total Risk Score. If the total score falls in the green zone (1 - 35), then
the risk is rated low and the mission is considered a “go.” A score in the yellow zone
(36 - 60) indicates moderate risk and additional mitigations or controls should be put in
place before proceeding with the mission. If the total score falls in the red zone (61 -
80), the risk is significant and this indicates a “no go.” Upon completion they review
9
their results together.
GAR RISK ASSESSMENT SCORE

1 - 35 36 - 60 61- 80
GREEN AMBER RED

GO- Proceed With Caution- Mitigate Hazards NO GO- Stop- Do Not
Mission Before Proceeding Proceed With Mission
Why this procedure really works… The ability to assign numerical scores or color
codes in the GAR Model is not the key ingredient in how this process serves to perform
effective risk assessment. The key ingredient occurs when team members discuss their
post-scoring results together, because it generates valuable discussion toward
understanding the risks and how the team will manage them. Ultimately, it slows down
the operational tempo and forces rescuers to carefully think rather than simply react.
9
18 | P a g e
Public Aircraft Regulations- FAA

Helicopter rescue operations are governed by the statutory regulations of the Federal
Aviation Administration, which are the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) in Title 14 of
the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR).
Public Aircraft
Public aircraft are considered by the FAA to be those owned or leased by the federal,
state, or a local government agency. Previously it was considered public aircraft
operations could not involve compensation between government entities, as it would
place the aircraft “for hire” in the civil aircraft (Part 135 operations) category. The
Independent Safety Board Act Amendments of 1994, (Public Law 103-411) clarified the
definition of public aircraft and held that one government agency could receive
compensation for providing aircraft services to another government agency.
Furthermore, it does not include public aircraft transporting passengers—“other than
when transporting crewmembers or other persons aboard the aircraft whose presence
is required to perform, or is associated with the performance of, a governmental
function such as firefighting, search and rescue, law enforcement, aeronautical
10
research, or biological or geological resource management.” Ultimately, the status of
a "public aircraft" depends on its use within government service and the type of
operation being conducted at the time. The European equivalent of the FAR is the
11
Joint Aviation Regulations (JAR), which has no such provision for public aircraft.
Rotorcraft External Load Operations- Public Aircraft

Of particular interest to most rescue agencies is FAR Part 133, Rotorcraft External Load
Operations, specifically section 133.1, which exempts “a federal, state, or local
government conducting operations with public aircraft” from the rotorcraft regulations.
According to the FAA, “agencies which conduct public aircraft operations are
encouraged to comply with the Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR), even when they not
required to do so.”12 The FAA designates rotorcraft-load combinations as Class A
through Class D. “Class D” refers to rescue operations in which the human external
cargo (HEC) is suspended below the helicopter.
If a private operator (non–public aircraft) were to consider conducting a short-haul

operation, another obstacle exists in the form of Part 133.45(e) 1-4, which requires the
use of a twin-engine aircraft with “hover capability with one engine inoperative at that
operating weight and altitude.” In addition, aircraft-to-rescuer communications are
required, along with an FAA-approved “personnel lifting device” that has an emergency
release that requires two distinct actions. “FAA approved” means that a piece of
equipment, such as an anchor point, has received a supplemental type certificate (STC)
or a technical standard order (TSO) verifying that it does not affect the airworthiness of
the aircraft.
10
FAA, Government Aircraft Operations
11
Joint Aviation Authorities, JAR OPS3
12
Federal Aviation Administration, Government Aircraft Operations. Advisory Circular 00-1.1.
19 | P a g e
FAR Part 133.31, Emergency Operations (a), states, “In an emergency involving the
safety of persons or property, the certificate holder may deviate from the rules of this
part to the extent required to meet that emergency.” The intent of this regulation is not
to give rescue organizations, when confronted with a life-threatening emergency on the
ground, clearance to violate FAA rules in order to accomplish a mission. It is important
to understand that Part 133.31(a) refers to in-flight emergencies and the helicopter
pilot’s deviation from rules to handle such an emergency. 13 Rescue organizations
unfortunately have sometimes interpreted this regulation as a loophole that allows them
to improvise a helicopter rescue operation. However, the fact is, such a practice
removes the critical need for advanced training, and crews may end up carrying out a
mission without the requisite proficiency and risk management.
Mission Management
The success of a mission is directly related to how well it is organized and managed.
Establish an adequate incident management structure through the incident command
system (ICS) for the identified response. To achieve this, the role of command must be
clearly identified to all personnel; an adequate span of control must be maintained to
prevent task overload; and staffing positions must be filled with trained, qualified rescue
workers. For large scale responses, activate the positions of air support group
supervisor, helibase manager, and helispot manager to coordinate the arrivals and
departures of numerous helicopters. This type of positive control of aviation assets
prevents the incident from turning into an unmanaged “air show,” in which pilots and air
crews are forced to operate without direction.
Flight Following
Flight following is a positive system of tracking aviation assets. It provides an
operational safety net in the event a rescue helicopter becomes overdue during a
mission. The aircraft’s position is reported automatically through its GPS and an
onboard satellite modem or alternatively by a crewmember at least hourly (every 15
minutes is preferable) to a dispatch center, air traffic control, or incident command (air
operations branch if available). This provides a last known point from which to start
search efforts, thereby reducing the response time to reach personnel who may be
injured.
Crew Resource Management

Flight crew actions or “human factors” were the primary casual factor in 70% of
significant commercial jet aviation accidents occurring 1959-1989. 14 This directly lead to
the development of a training program known as Cockpit Resource Management
(CRM) or “crew resource management” as the concept began to involve personnel
outside of the flight deck. CRM is also useful outside the aviation industry and has
been found to be highly effective for improving team performance in any high-risk
environment. CRM directly addresses the errors caused by poor group decision-
making, ineffective communication, inadequate leadership, and poor task or resource
13
Harrington, Nick. Aviation Safety Inspector. Federal Aviation Administration.
14
Wiener, Earl, Barbara Kanaki, and Robert Helmreich. Cockpit Resource Management, page 5.
20 | P a g e
management. A team employing effective CRM utilizes open communications,

briefings, team member advocacy, crew monitoring, crosschecking, task vigilance,
effective workload management, improved situational awareness, fatigue and
distraction avoidance, and promotes an environment of self-critique.
Good CRM relies on the dedicated actions of people, which are unfortunately not
without flaws. A breakdown in effective CRM repeatedly leads to accidents. During
helicopter rescue operations, effective CRM needs be achieved not only amongst the
flight crew but also extend well beyond the aircraft to include communications personnel
(dispatch), ground rescuers, incident command staff, and additional responding
agencies. One of the best means to practice good CRM is through effective and
professional communication strategies, which eliminate confusion and avoid assuming
information has been adequately shared. The importance of several of the
communications techniques found within this text, such as conducting briefings and
utilizing direct statements all contribute back to improved CRM.
Communications
Clear precise communications eliminates the pitfalls that have jeopardized many
missions. Common hand signals (Figure 6) are useful when combined with radio
transmissions, because they are instantly understood and avoid the problems of
garbled messages and radio frequency congestion. However, pilots who are not familiar
with or confident of the ground personnel using the hand signals may ignore the signals
or rely on their own best judgment instead. Working and training in advance builds the
necessary trust and familiarity between aircrews and ground rescuers.
Emergency responders must have reliable communication equipment and possess

effective personal communication skills. Communication is everything on a SAR
operation. Without “good comm,” safety is quickly jeopardized as personnel
accountability is lost and responders begin free-lancing without specific direction. As
stated previously, the sharing of critical information provides an accurate mental model
for personnel. Flight crews adhere to a “sterile cockpit,” refraining from non-essential or
extraneous conversation, during critical phases of flight (e.g. landing, take-off, hover,
hoist operations, etc.). Crewmembers should be taught to violate this mandate if they
have urgent safety-related communication required for the safe operation of the aircraft.
Five Communication Responsibilities for All Personnel:15

1. Brief Others As Needed
2. Debrief Your Actions
3. Communicate Hazards To Others
4. Acknowledge Messages
5. Ask, If You Don’t Know
15
NWCG, Incident Response Pocket Guide, page ix.
21 | P a g e
Hand Signals
Hand signals are vital since they can provide an immediate backup technique in the
event of a communication failure. Standardized hand signals used by federal land
management agencies (Figure 7) as well as by the U.S. Navy (Table 2) can provide an
instant means of communication that is not subject to interference from other sources
like radio transmissions. The effectiveness of hand signals is hampered by lighting and
distance. Ground rescue personnel should give hand signals in a large and
exaggerated manner to prevent misinterpretation by the flight crew.
Figure 7- Interagency Helicopter Hand Signals. Source;

Interagency Helicopter Operations Guide (IHOG). NFES 1885
22 | P a g e
Table 2. US Navy- Team and Helicopter Signals

MEANING ACTION
Affirmative Thumbs Up
Cease Operations Slashing Motion Across Throat
Deploy Medical Kit Crossed Wrist
Deploy Backup Swimmer Breast Stroke Motion
Deploy Raft Paddling Motion
Deploy Stokes Litter Hands Cupped Then Arms Out-stretched
Deploy rope ladder Fists Shoulder Width Apart, Climbing Motion
Emergency MK-13/124 Flare and/or Overt Strobe
Helicopter Move In/Out Wave In/Out
Lower Rescue Cable Without Device Climbing Rope Motion
Lower Penetrator/Device One Arm Extended Overhead Fist Clenched
Closed Fist, Pumping Arm, Point With Other
Parachute nearby
Arm
Ready for Pickup Arms Waving/Strobe
Raise Cable Thumbs Up/Chemlight Pumping Motion
Sharks Hand-Clapping Motion
Circling Arm Over Head Finger Pointing
Team Recall
Skyward
Unable to Recover Must Depart Flashing Landing Light
Movement of Aircraft Direction of Palm
Source: Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1, 2009 edition
Using Direct Statements

Emergency responders often observe operational hazards during an incident, however
they fail to speak up to initiate getting them corrected. In situations involving critical
communication, it is most effective to use direct statements. Although they appear rude,
direct statements are difficult to ignore and are very productive.
The following are the six components of direct statements:

1. Address the person to whom you are talking by name.
2. Begin with, “I,” “I think,” “I believe,” or “I feel.”
3. State your message or solution as clearly as possible.
4. Use the appropriate emotion for your message so that it’s delivered as you
intended.
5. Require a response by using such statements as “What do you think?” or “Don’t
you agree?”
6. Don’t let the matter go. Don’t disengage with the other person until you achieve
agreement or buy-in.
An example of a direct statement might be, “Jane, I think we need to move personnel
away from this hazardous location. Don’t you agree?”
23 | P a g e
It may sound elementary, but this technique is surprisingly effective. A direct statement
gets the person’s attention and forces the individual to deal with your concern rather
than allowing him or her to ignore your message.
Briefing Personnel
When we work together in a small team during an emergency, our ability to share
information and develop a “shared mental image” is the key to effective teamwork. The
incident commander must adequately communicate their intent and plans to other
rescuers. The following checklist (Box 3) provides an effective means for
communicating a plan in critical circumstances.
Box 3. EMERGENCY BRIEFING FORMAT
1. Here’s what I think we face

2. Here’s what I think we should do
(Assignments, communications, and contingencies)
3. Here’s why
4. Here’s what we should keep our eye on
5. Now, talk to me
Adapted from Dr. Karl Weick, South Canyon Revisited: Lessons Learned From High Reliability Organizations.
The strength of this concise briefing format is found in the last line. When we openly
solicit feedback from team members with an open-ended statement we create a culture
that encourages communication. This is far different from asking, “any questions?”
Multi-Tasking
During a challenging rescue it is easy to quickly become “over-tasked.” We falsely
believe that we are good at multi-tasking, which is more accurately described as
16
“concurrent task management.” The reality is that we are prone to errors while
attempting to manage multiple tasks. For example, while completing a procedural
checklist, we may fail to complete an intermediate task, due to being distracted by
someone asking a question. An increased workoad often results in the “omission of
crucial task elements, along with loss of situation awareness and poor decsion
making.” 17
Failure to manage concurrent tasks effectively occurs through; 18

1. Interruptions and distractions
2. Tasks that cannot be conducted in the practiced sequence
3. New tasks arise unexpectantly
4. Multiple tasks that must be performed concurrently
16
Loukopoulos, Loukia, R. Key Dismukes, and Immanuel Barshi. The Multitasking Myth, page 11.
17
Ibid, page 20.
18
Ibid, page 106.
24 | P a g e
Distractions from a primary task can occur through;

• Radio traffic
• Conflict
• Previous errors
• Collateral duties
• Incident within an incident
Inattentional
blindness, which is
“looking without
seeing”, causes us to
fail to notice an
unexpected stimulus
in our field of vision
when other attention-
demanding tasks are
being performed.
How can a trained
rescuer walk into a
spinning helicopter
rotor? It happens
because humans
become overloaded
with stimuli, and it is
impossible to pay
attention to all stimuli
in one's environment. Figure 8- Avoid distractions. Use team members effectively for
monitoring and crosschecking. Two rescuers, well-equipped for the
Recognizing the risk extreme conditions of a high altitude rescue operation, conduct short-haul
associated with training at Denali National Park & Preserve. Image copyright Menno
Boermans.
interruptions and
distraction can assist
a person in being cautious when they need to interrupt someone else. Ask team
members for assistance in monitoring and crosschecking (Figure 8). Use checklist,
visual cues, reminders and monitoring to safeguards against errors of omission.
Landing Zones
The urgency of a helicopter rescue can result in flight and/or ground crews utilizing a
landing zone that is less than adequate, typically because of the proximity to an
accident scene. This action has directly resulted in rotor strikes with terrain, vessels,
cables, wires, foreign object debris and tragically, rescue personnel on the ground. 19
Select an adequately sized landing zone, based upon the type helicopter being
employed (Table 3).
19
Phillips, Ken. Unpublished analysis of Helicopter Rescue Accidents- IKAR
25 | P a g e
Table 3. Landing Zones Specifications

Helicopter Type Type I Type II Type III
Touchdown Pad 30 feet X 30 feet 20 feet x 20 feet 15 feet X 15 feet
Dimensions (9 m X 9 m) (6 m X6 m) (4.6 m X 4.6 m)
Safety Circle
110 feet (33.5 m) 90 feet (27.4 m) 75 feet (22.8 m)
Diameter
Source; Interagency Helicopter Operations Guide (IHOG). NFES # 1885
Factors that must be considered

during a wilderness helicopter
rescue include winds, dust and
snow covered terrain (Figure 9).
Winds can be extremely variable in
the mountain environment and a
visual indication of speed and
direction can be very useful for the
pilot. A windsock, flagging, smoke
signal, or dirt thrown into the air as
the helicopter initiates a high orbit
over the scene can serve as a wind
indicator. A helicopter achieves
optimum performance when
landings and takeoffs are made
into the direction of the oncoming
wind. Ground rescuers should
anticipate this in their selection of a
landing zone and in the staging of
rescue apparatus or personal
equipment.
Rotor Wash
Management of dust by wetting
down the landing surface or snow Figure 9- Helispot Landing. Helicopter evacuation of ill
by compaction can minimize the climber at 14,200 feet (4,328m) elevation being conducted
amount of blowing particles that by National Park Service rescuers at Denali National Park &
reduce visibility during landings and Preserve with contract AS350 B3 helicopter. Image
take offs. The rotor wash from an copyright Menno Boermans.
unmanaged dust or snow covered
landing zone could result in a brownout or whiteout as the aircraft attempts touchdown,
resulting in spatial disorientation for the pilot. In Iraq and Afghanistan, brownout was a
critical concern with it being responsible for three out of every four U.S. military
helicopter accidents. 20 A landing zone covered in tall grass may contain hidden
hazards, such as large rocks, and the grassy surface can develop wavelike motions
resulting in disorientation for the pilot.
20
Wadock, Alan J., et al. Downwash Flow Field Study_, page 1.
26 | P a g e
The concern of increased rotor wash (downwash) from larger aircraft (Figure 10) is a
significant hazard to ground rescuers, which should be carefully evaluated in mission
planning. The potential exists for an unsecured rescuer in technical terrain being struck
by powerful rotor wash or the associated propelled debris. This situation claimed the life
of a park ranger during a hoist rescue at Mount Rainier National Park on June 21, 2012,
while he worked 50 feet beneath a CH-47 Chinook on an icy 35° slope 21. Consciously
evaluate if the aircraft being employed will create unnecessary risk with the increased
rotor wash in the specific rescue environment and what specific actions can be taken to
reduce this hazard.
Figure 10- Rotor Outwash Study. Velocity vectors from rotor outwash are shown in a
transverse plane for the EH-101 (AgustaWestland AW101) Merlin Helicopter. It is important to
note that the greatest velocities are generated near the rotor tips. Source: Rotorcraft
Downwash Flow Field Study to Understand the Aerodynamics of Helicopter Brownout by Alan
Wadcock et. al. Reprinted with permission of the author.
Hot Loading
Hot loading (engine running) or hot off-loading of a helicopter sometimes may be
required for efficiency, such as for crew shuttles and power-on landings. However,
remember that this practice poses greater risk for personnel particularly from possible
rotor droop if engine RPM is reduced. Anticipate the situation and secure loose debris
and gear in advance. Shutting down the aircraft to load personnel or a rescue subject
dramatically reduces the risk and increases the safety of everyone working near the
aircraft.
21
NPS. Serious Accident Investigation-June 21,2012.
27 | P a g e
Additional landing zone considerations:

• Avoid landing zones where maximum performance takeoffs are required.
• Any wind indicator being employed at the site must be secure.
• A landing zone with significant sloping terrain should be avoided.
• Anticipate a shift in wind direction with a site that permits an aircraft being able to
maneuver into the wind.
DoD Landing Zone (LZ) Radio Call- “STOPWWW”

• S- Size (100 X 100 feet [30m X 30m])
• T- Terrain
• O- Obstacles
• P- Power= Elevation
• W- Winds
• W- Waive Off
• W- Weight
Note: refer to Appendix F for DoD landing zone requirements.
Aircraft Weight and Balance

It is vital to comply with weight and balance limits established for a helicopter. Operating
above the maximum weight limitation compromises the structural integrity of the
helicopter and adversely affects performance. Balance is also critical because on some
fully loaded helicopters, center of gravity (CG) deviations by a few inches can
dramatically change a helicopter’s handling characteristics. To determine the weight
and balance, a helicopter manufacturer calculates the longitudinal and lateral CG
envelopes of a helicopter so that in a loaded manner there is sufficient cyclic control for
all flight conditions 22.
Load Calculation
To ensure that a helicopter is not exceeding maximum gross weight (equipped weight
plus entire load), a load calculation should be prepared before any mission. The
Department of the Interior (DOI) and U.S. Forest Service (USFS) use an Interagency
Helicopter Load Calculation Form (NFES #1064), which is completed by the pilot
(Figure 11). The military employs a Performance Planning Card, which are specific to
the model of aircraft.
This might be viewed as an unnecessary delay during an emergency operation,

however the completion of an accurate load calculation is an essential flight planning
tool. Pre-weighing SAR equipment and clearly marking this weight on the outside of the
bags, streamlines payload calculations during an operational response. In determining if
a helicopter is within the weight limits, you must consider the weight of the basic
helicopter, crew, passengers, cargo, and fuel.
22
FAA Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, chapter 7
28 | P a g e
BASIC EMPTY WEIGHT—The

starting point for weight
computations is the basic empty
weight. This is the weight of the
standard helicopter, optional
equipment, unusable fuel, and
full operating fluids including full
engine oil.
FUEL- The weight of the

onboard aircraft fuel load.
Domestically Jet-A is used in the
U.S. for turbine helicopters,
which is 6.8 lbs. per U.S. gallon
(rounded to 7 lbs. [3.1kg] for
calculations). JP-8 is a jet fuel,
which is less flammable and
safer for combat survivability,
specified and used widely by the
US military. The U.S. Navy uses
a similar formula, JP-5.
USEFUL LOAD—The difference

between the gross weight and
the basic empty weight is
referred to as useful load. It
includes the flight crew, usable
fuel, drainable oil, if applicable,
and payload.
PAYLOAD—The weight of the

passengers and cargo.
GROSS WEIGHT—The sum of

the basic empty weight and
useful load.
MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT—

The maximum weight of the
Figure 11- Interagency Load Calculation Form. Used by
helicopter. Most helicopters have USFS and DOI, items 1-13 are completed by the pilot. The
an internal maximum gross Helicopter Manager completes Items 14 & 15. NFES 1064.
weight, which refers to the
weight within the helicopter
structure and an external maximum gross weight, which refers to the weight of the
helicopter with an external load.
29 | P a g e
Important Load Calculation Reminders

Perform a new load calculation when environmental conditions change, as with:
• Plus or minus 5º C (41º F) in temperature
• Plus or minus 1,000 ft. (305 m) in altitude
• A significant change in the fuel load
During agency incident operations, the pilot-in-command (PIC) should be kept informed
of altitudes and temperatures aircraft will be expected to operate, so that out-of-ground
effect allowable payloads can be calculated. When military aircraft are employed,
agency helibase personnel are responsible for providing the military crew chief with an
accurate manifest of passengers and cargo. For complex missions requiring numerous
insertions of personnel, military aircrews may utilize an Assault Support Serial
Assignment Table (ASSAT) or Assault Support Landing Assignment Table (ASLAT) as
planning documents to plan the manifest for each load.
Helicopter Rescue Crew Configuration

The benchmark of a highly functioning helicopter crew is shared mental image, which
allows members to share knowledge and work together in a coordinated fashion. The
exact crew configuration varies based on the agency and aircraft size. However, most
rescue helicopter crews include the following:
• Pilot: The PIC conducts all activities related to flying the helicopter.
• Copilot/helicopter manager: The copilot (i.e. pilot not flying- more precisely
known as “pilot monitoring”) or the helicopter manager is responsible for
performing en route navigation and communication tasks. The copilot serves as
second in command of the aircraft during flight operations.
• Operations chief/crew chief/spotter: This crewmember is responsible for all
operations in the aft cabin of the helicopter (e.g. hoist operations).
• Rescuer/HEMS crewmember: This crewmember performs rescue tasks related
to hoist, short-haul, helicopter rappel operations, and/or patient care. Once on
the ground at the rescue site, this person becomes a link between ground
rescuers at the scene and the aircraft.
Pilot Responsibility
The final authority regarding any aircraft is always the PIC. This authority is provided by
14 CFR part 91.3(a), which states that the “pilot in command of an aircraft is directly
responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.”
In a two pilot aircraft, the PIC concept fails to capture the role and responsibility of the
other pilot in the cockpit (Figure 12). The term Pilot Flying (PF), identifies the pilot who
has responsibility for flying the aircraft for a segment of flight. The other pilot is
designated as 'Pilot Not Flying' (PNF) or more accurately 'Pilot Monitoring' (PM). The
role of the PNF is to monitor the flight management, aircraft control actions of the PF,
and carry out support duties such as communications and check-list reading.
30 | P a g e
Helicopter Flight
Characteristics and
Limitations
A basic understanding of the
flight characteristics of
helicopters can allow ground
rescuers to make more
informed decisions regarding
rescue plans.
Helicopter
Aerodynamics 23
The main rotor blades on a
helicopter rotate in a
Figure 12- Two pilot configuration. Two USAF 41st Rescue
horizontal circular area and Squadron pilots fly an HH-60G Pave Hawk during training at Moody
act as “wings” or airfoils to Air Force Base, GA. U.S. Air Force photo, Airman 1st Class
create lift for the helicopter. Benjamin Wiseman.
Landing into the wind aids
this aerodynamic principle, because with the increased wind velocity over the airfoil,
less power is required to achieve the same amount of lift. This is an important concept
for ground rescuers to understand, because a pilot will attempt to land and take off into
the direction of the oncoming wind.
Flight controls employed by the pilot include anti-torque floor pedals, collective, and
cyclic (Figure 13). The rotational motion of the rotor blades generates torque in the
opposite direction. A tail rotor or adjustable jet thruster in the tail boom, controlled by
floor pedals, provides anti-torque control to compensate and prevent the helicopter from
Figure 13- Helicopter Flight Controls. Three primary helicopter flight controls include cyclic, collective,
and anti-torque foot pedals. Image courtesy FAA.
23
FAA Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, chapter 3
31 | P a g e
spinning out of control. The pilot can vary the pitch of the main rotor blades to permit
the helicopter to climb or descend through the use of the collective pitch control while
the cyclic control, located between the pilot’s legs, directs the forward, backward, and
sideways movement of the helicopter through corresponding tilting of the rotor disc.
Ground Effect
The proximity of the helicopter to the ground can result in increased lift from the
interaction of the rotor downwash with the ground. Hover in ground effect (HIGE)
typically occurs one half the rotor diameter above the surface, where the ground
interrupts the airflow under the helicopter, and the velocity of the induced airflow to the
rotor system is reduced (Figure 14). The result is less induced drag and more vertical
lift. This ground effect is beneficial in flight because it increases the lift capability of the
helicopter, which consequently requires less power to maintain a hover. Ground effect
is less effective when positioned over uneven terrain, vegetation, water, or high grass
because these surfaces absorb some of the downwash energy beneath the rotor disc.
As a helicopter climbs away from the ground surface it loses this effect of increased lift.
Hover out of ground effect (HOGE) occurs at an altitude high enough that the added
benefit of ground effect is not obtained.
Figure 14- Ground effect. Air circulation patterns change when hovering out of ground effect (HOGE)
and when hovering in ground effect (HIGE). Image courtesy FAA.
Autorotation
Autorotation allows a helicopter to land safely, within defined limits, if the engine fails in
flight. Helicopters have a freewheeling unit in the transmission which automatically
disengages the engine from the rotor system in the event of failure, permitting the main
rotor to spin freely. As the helicopter descends, the airflow is upward through the rotor
system, causing a windmilling of the blades. By changing the pitch of the blades, the
pilot can maintain constant rpm. The pilot slows the aircraft using the stored blade
32 | P a g e
inertia and can cushion the helicopter to a landing. The required airspeed for successful
autorotation varies based on altitude and helicopter type. For most light, single engine
helicopters this minimum height, as in a hover, is 350 to 450 feet (107 to 137 m) above
ground level. 24 This has serious implications for all helicopter rescue personnel,
because the low-altitude hovers used for hoisting, short-haul, and rappelling operations
all occur within the cautionary portions of the height-velocity curve charts.
Translational Lift
Translational lift is the additional lift generated as the helicopter transitions from a hover
to horizontal flight. This additional lift comes from the increased efficiency of the rotor
system, which generates more lift in forward flight, as a result of higher in-flow velocity
of air mass than during a hover.
Density Altitude
Density altitude (DA) provides a measure of the air density corrected for temperature
and humidity variations at altitude. The DA greatly affects a helicopter’s performance.
At lower elevations, the rotor blade cuts through denser air, which provides better
performance than the air at higher altitudes. At an altitude of 10,000 feet (3,048m), for
example, there are fewer air molecules per cubic foot of air, which results in diminished
performance. An increase in humidity has a minor effect on DA when compared with an
increase in the altitude or temperature. Aircraft performance charts therefore commonly
reflect only air temperature and pressure altitude. To understand the dramatic effects of
DA, consider that on an 80° F (27º C) day at 8,000 feet (2,438m), the higher DA causes
the aircraft to perform as if it were at 11,100 feet (3,383m)!
Hover Ceiling
The hover ceiling is the highest altitude at which a helicopter can successfully hover
while loaded to its maximum gross weight. In and out of ground effect hover ceilings are
computed at maximum gross weight.
Center of Gravity
The CG is the point in a helicopter where all forces are balanced, typically under the
rotor mast. This is a critical balance for safe flight, and it is effected by the distribution of
the weight of fuel, personnel, and cargo in the helicopter.
Helicopter Landings
From a risk management perspective, the preferred helicopter landing is a full
touchdown landing at a suitable flat landing zone clear of obstructions. This method
poses less risk to the aircrew and ground rescuers. In some situations, higher risk
landing techniques must be utilized:
24
Department of the Interior, Basic Aviation Safety, p.8
33 | P a g e
Slope Landings
Landing across a slope of 5° is considered the maximum for normal operation of most
helicopters. Landing with the helicopter facing downslope increases the risk of striking
the tail on the surface. The risk of landing across a slope is that a helicopter is
susceptible to a lateral rolling phenomenon called dynamic rollover.
For dynamic rollover to occur, some factor must first cause the helicopter to roll or pivot
around a skid or landing gear wheel, until its critical rollover angle is reached. If the
critical rollover angle is exceeded, the helicopter rolls on its side regardless of the cyclic
control corrections made. Dynamic rollover may also occur if the pilot does not use the
proper landing or takeoff technique or while performing slope operations. Dynamic
rollover can occur in both skid and wheel equipped helicopters, and all types of rotor
25
systems.
One-Skid Landings
A one-skid landing is used in rugged terrain where the topography prevents a normal
landing with both skids on the ground and the pilot may have to put a single skid or
landing wheel alongside the slope to allow boarding or exiting. During the maneuver,
the helicopter remains “in flight” at full power.
Toe-In Landings
A toe-in landing is
similar to a one-skid
landing in that only the
front tips of the skids
make contact with the
ground (Figure 15).
One-skid and toe-in
landings put the aircraft
close to physical
hazards. Although
used by many
agencies, these
techniques require
practice and are not a
recommended option
for most teams,
especially those with
only intermittent
Figure 15- Toe-In Landing. Using a Eurocopter EC 135 T2, rescuers from
experience in the Italian rescue association Aiut Alpin Dolomites, conduct a toe-in landing
helicopter operations. near the Passo Sella in the Dolomites. Image copyright Mateo Taibon.
Additionally, this
introduces a pivot point that could generate conditions resulting in dynamic rollover.
25
FAA. Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, page 10-6.
34 | P a g e
Hover Landings
Hover or step-out landings are utilized to drop off or pick up passengers and cargo
while the helicopter is held in a hover. The helicopter is not in contact with the ground,
and its CG can shift laterally and longitudinally.
Power-On Landing
A less risky consideration for a marginal landing zone is a power-on landing, in which
the pilot places both skids in full contact with the ground while running full power to
maintain the position of the aircraft. This type of landing may be an operational
consideration, where a minimal or sloping touchdown pad is bordered by a steep drop
in terrain. It may be the preferred technique during snow landings where depth and
firmness are unknown precluding powering down the helicopter.
Basic Helicopter Safety

Preflight Briefing
Before boarding a helicopter as a passenger, a preflight briefing from the pilot or
aircrew, including the following information specific to the helicopter, is required:
• Personal protective equipment (e.g. Nomex® clothing, gloves and flight helmet)
• Approach and departure around aircraft
• Location of the first aid kit and any survival equipment
• Location and operation of the fire extinguisher, first aid kit and emergency location
transmitter (ELT)
• Emergency electrical and fuel shutoff controls
• Operation of doors and seat belts
• Emergency procedures and exits
Safety During Helicopter Operations

• Never approach the helicopter until the pilot or crew directs you to do so. Then,
approach and depart from the side (45° or less) or front of the aircraft in a
crouching position and in full view of the pilot. Do not walk toward the tail rotor.
• To avoid proximity to the main rotor, approach and depart on the down slope
side of the aircraft. Do not walk uphill exposing yourself to the rotor system when
departing from an aircraft or approach a helicopter by walking downhill toward
the rotor blades.
• Use the door latches only as instructed. To avoid damaging fragile aircraft
components, be cautious around Plexiglas and moving parts.
• Fasten your seat belt upon boarding the helicopter and leave it secured until the
pilot signals for you to disembark. Fasten the seat belt behind you as you leave
the aircraft.
• Secure loose clothing or equipment that could generate snag hazards.
• Keep landing areas free of loose debris that rotor wash may pick up.
• Do not throw items from the helicopter, because they could strike the rotor
system.
35 | P a g e
• Provide visual wind indicators for landing and takeoff; stand at the edge of the
landing zone with your back to the wind and your arms pointing at the touchdown
pad.
• When working on the ground around a helicopter, wear eye and hearing
protection, along with a helmet secured by a chin strap.
• When approaching or departing from aircraft, nothing should be carried above
shoulder level.
• Secure all cargo placed aboard the helicopter; provide the pilot or aircrew with
accurate weights.
• Hot loading of passengers or a rescue subject involves greater risk; always be
alert when conducting such a maneuver. Consider reducing the risk when
practical by shutting down the aircraft.
• Landing zones should have acceptable rotor clearance for the aircraft assigned
to the incident, and all incident personnel should be aware of these clearance
requirements.
• As a passenger, know the aircraft’s location and have a mental plan for what to
do in the event of a crash or in-flight emergency.
• While working on the ground beneath the helicopter, during hover phases, all
rescue personnel must be aware of the aircraft's position and maintain a
constant vigilance upon the belly of the aircraft.
RESCUE LINE ENTANGLEMENT

All personnel involved in helicopter rescue should be made aware that accidents
involving line entanglement have been catastrophic for flight crew and rescuers.
Conscious efforts should be made by rescue personnel to prevent entanglement of a
hoist cable, short-haul line, or rescue load on the line with fixed objects on the ground
(Box 4). The extraction phase of a rescue operation should be treated as a critical
phase of flight, with increased vigilance and mental preparation toward reacting to a
problem.
BOX 4. LINE ENTANGLEMENT- CRITICAL SAFETY REMINDERS:

• Preventing line entanglement is paramount
• Brief in advance on emergency procedures
• Avoid attachment of helicopter directly to ground
• Keep the rigging at the bottom end simple
• Always double check attachment points
• Clear communication is vital
• Rescue extraction is a “critical phase of flight”
Personnel Protective Equipment

The military, federal civilian agencies, and most public safety organizations have strict
requirements for the personal protective equipment (PPE) that must be worn by the
36 | P a g e
crew and passengers aboard rescue helicopters. Although turbine-powered helicopters

are highly reliable, the potential for crash and postcrash injuries still exists. For
example, a common risk is a flash fire after the crash, therefore fire-resistant clothing is
a necessity. Personal protective equipment required by DOI includes the following:
• Fire-resistant clothing: A loose-fitting flight suit or clothing made of fire-

resisitant material, such as Nomex® or Polybenzimidazole (PBI), helps protect
against injuries from fire. The loose-fitting style provides an airspace between the
fabric and the skin that acts as insulation against heat sources. Although the
fabric reduces the risk or severity of tissue damage, it does not prevent thermal
injury to the skin. Nomex® is a fire-resistant aramid fiber manufactured by the
DuPont Corp, which does not melt or flow at high temperatures. Above 700°F
(370°C), Nomex® will degrade rapidly to a friable char. At the point at which
woven nylon fabrics melt (489°F, 254°C), fabrics woven of Nomex® fiber retain
about 60% of their original strength. 26 PBI is a synthetic fiber produced by PBI
Performance Products, Inc. PBI will not ignite, and retains fiber integrity in
addition to suppleness when exposed to flames. It does not have a melting point
but has a decomposition temperature ≥ 1300° F (700°C). The heat transfer
27
through any fire-resistant material could be high enough to melt synthetic

undergarments (e.g. polypropylene or Capilene); therefore these fabrics should
not be worn next to the skin during flight operations. Natural fiber garments, such
as wool, cotton, and silk are preferred. Polartec® Thermal-FR®, developed by
Malden Mills, and Flamestop™, developed by Huntingdon Mills, are fire-
resistant, insulating fleece materials made from Nomex®. These are particularly
useful garments for helicopter rescue operations in cold weather.
• Flight helmet: Although a costly

piece of equipment, a helicopter flight
helmet provides the most effective
head protection in the event of
impact. The Gentex Corporation SPH-
5 helmet (sound protective helmet) is
one of several popular commercial
helicopter helmets (Figure 16). It
provides a maximum peak force
deceleration up to 300 g’s (0.4
milliseconds duration) inside the
helmet during a sustained impact
(using ANSI Z-90.1 test design),
which enables the helmet to distribute
the impact to a survivable level for the
wearer. Testing also involves a
penetration test with 1 lb. (0.4536
kg) pointed steel weight dropped Figure 16- SPH-5 Flight Helmet. Image copyright
from 10 ft. (2.48 m) resulting in less Gentex Corporation.
26
Stern and Stern Industries, Inc.. Nomex® Fabric.
27
PBI Performance Products.
37 | P a g e
than ¼ inch penetration. 28 For comparison the European Norm (EN) 12492 and
UIAA 106 certification for a climbing helmet involves a penetration test
performed with a 6.6 lb. (3.0 kg) weight dropped from 3.2 feet (1.0 m). The flight
helmet’s design allows communication through a noise-canceling microphone
and earphones in the ear cups.
It is important to recognize that military flight helmets and aircraft employ a low
impedance design, while civilian flight helmets employ a high impedance design,
thereby creating an equipment incompatibility. This design difference can be
overcome with an adapter. Other features of a flight helmet include noise
suppression, a protective visor, and an energy-absorbing liner. A maxillofacial
shield (MFS), which can be attached with latches to a HGU-56/P helmet,
protects the lower facial area from flying debris. Even though ground rescuers
aboard helicopters on rescue missions frequently wear climbing helmets and
firefighter hard hats, a flight helmet is a superior protective device, since it is
specifically designed for this application.
• Footwear and hand, eye, and ear protection: Fire resistant or leather gloves,
as well as leather boots that are at least ankle height, provide added protection
against fire injuries. Nylon components on lightweight hiking boots can melt in a
post-crash fire, resulting in burn injuries. The environment of the rescue, such as
winter alpine conditions or over-water operations, may dictate footwear (e.g.,
plastic mountaineering boots) that is more reasonable for outside conditions.
Fire-resistant clothing should have sleeves that can be worn over the gauntlet of
the gloves and legs long enough to eliminate exposure between the clothing and
the tops of the boots. Sunglasses or clear safety goggles provide excellent eye
protection for the blowing prop wash generated by helicopters. Disposable
earplugs provide added hearing protection against the high decibel levels of
helicopters.
• Harnesses: During hoisting, short-haul, and rappelling operations, mission-

specific rescue harnesses are worn by crew chiefs/spotters as a tether to the
aircraft. Rescuer/ paramedics/HEMS crewmembers wear harnesses approved by
their flight program. The features of these harnesses can include dorsal
attachment points, full-body harness design, and suspension comfort.
• Life vest: When over-water flights lack sufficient glide distance to shore, the
aircrew should don an aviation life vest for personal safety. A manually inflatable
(not auto inflate), FAA-approved aviation life vest is required as opposed to a
bulky, U.S. Coast Guard–approved, foam-filled personal flotation device (PFD),
which would actually restrict a user’s ability to safely exit an aircraft submerged in
water.
28
Montenegro James, Lead Quality Engineer, Gentex Corp.
38 | P a g e
Personal Preparedness
Helicopter rescuers can quickly find themselves deployed into an extreme environment
in which they are not adequately prepared to function. They are vulnerable to accidents
arising from environmental hazards, such as talus, exposed cliff faces, snow or ice, and
swift water. The choice of footwear and outerwear, as well as personal survival gear
kept on their person, should be a top priority for aircrew members who could be
exposed to such extremes.
In-Flight Emergency: Survival Plan Checklist

• Follow the instructions of the pilot and aircrew.
• Secure your seat belt and harness.
• Keep clear of the controls, secure all loose gear, and note emergency exits.
• Forward-facing passengers with a shoulder harness should sit in the full upright
position with chin tucked downward, with hands on knees and arms pushing
them against their seat back.
• Forward-facing passengers without a shoulder harness (lap belt only) should
bend forward until their chests rest on their thighs. Arms should be clasped
together under their thighs to hold this position.
• Rear-facing passenger should brace with their hands on knees and head against
upright portion of their seat back.
• Side-facing passengers should bend forward at the waist, grasp the arms under
legs, and place the head between the knees.
• Assist any injured individuals who cannot leave the aircraft.
• Exit the helicopter only after the rotor blades have stopped or when instructed to
do so by the aircrew.
• Assess the situation and render aid as needed.
Emergency Water Ditching

Survival Training
Aircrews involved in over-water
operations (Figure 17) need to be
proficient in emergency water
ditching procedures and egress
(Box 5). This involves very
realistic training with the aid of a
“dunker” device as well as
breathing devices, which can be
brought to a swimming pool, to
simulate a water ditching
emergency. This training helps
participants develop the
confidence and muscle memory Figure 17- Water Rescue. An aviation survival technician
(AST) jumps from an HH-60 Jayhawk helicopter assigned to
to survive a water ditching Air Station Elizabeth City, NC, during a rescue
incident without panicking. demonstration. USCG photo by PA2 Jacquelyn Zettles.
39 | P a g e
Box 5. Water Ditching Checklist

Remind yourself that you can survive a water ditching incident. Most important, DON’T
PANIC! Panic can be avoided by remaining calm and thinking clearly.
1. Secure loose items. Put your flight helmet visor down and sweep the boom microphone
to the side.
2. Unplug your flight helmet.
3. Establish a reference point with your hand (e.g. a door handle). Do not let go of your
reference point.
4. Just before contact with the water, crack open the aircraft door.
5. As the aircraft settles in the water, count slowly to five to allow rotor movement to
cease.
6. Release your seat belt with your free hand.
7. Know your second exit, if your primary route is blocked.
8. Exit the aircraft, following your reference point hand.
9. Do not kick, since other personnel could be right behind you.
10. Swim out horizontally and then up.
11. Hand up, look up, and come up toward the surface, following the air bubbles.
12. Survey the surface for hazards and survivors.
13. Inflate your flotation device (don’t inflate it inside the aircraft).
Patient Care and Transport Considerations

Providing effective medical care to a packaged rescue subject, while using an external
helicopter technique (e.g., hoist or short-haul) is significantly more difficult than in
conventional rope-based rescue. Helicopter operations require the litter attendant to
contend with rotor wash, flying debris, minimize litter spin, the forward motion of the
aircraft, and the subject’s medical needs.
During hoisting and short-haul operations, a litter attendant is not in a practical position
to perform extensive medical care in-flight. However, the litter attendant is very
important in these types of operations. A supine patient who vomits and aspirates in-
flight is a potential problem. The eight classic stressors of flight transport, affect a
rescue subject including noise,
vibration, and thermal changes that Box 6. Eight Classic Stressors of
occur during helicopter rescue Flight Transport
operations (Box 6) (Figure 18). Low- 1. Noise
frequency vibration can induce motion 2. Vibration
sickness, which stimulates the “vomiting 3. Thermal changes
center” of the medulla. In addition, 4. Fatigue
vibration can cause fatigue, shortness 5. Barometric pressure
of breath, and abdominal and chest 6. Decreased humidity
pain. Vibration against a subject causes 7. Decreased partial pressure of oxygen
mechanical energy to be transformed 8. Gravity (G) forces
into heat energy as body tissues
40 | P a g e
provide dampening, resulting

in increased metabolic and
respiratory rates. Temperature
changes, both hot and cold, in
conjunction with exposure to
vibration, can inhibit the
body’s compensation
mechanisms. 29
Visual stimuli and anxiety,

compounded by motion, can
precipitate the onset of motion
sickness, leading to nausea
and vomiting. Visual fixation
on other moving objects may
also precipitate an attack. A Figure 18- Helicopter EMS (HEMS). Aeromedical crewmembers
with Travis County STAR Flight provide in-flight patient care. Image
recumbent individual can be courtesy Travis County STAR Flight, Texas.
affected by the visual strobing
effect of rotor blades
overhead. It is believed that 5% of the epileptic population suffers from photosensitive
epilepsy (aka flicker seizures), which is “triggered by flashing lights or contrasting light
30
and dark patterns.” However, “flashing or patterned effects can make people with or
without epilepsy feel disorientated, uncomfortable or unwell. This does not necessarily
mean they have photosensitive epilepsy.” 31 An antiemetic, which is controls nausea,
vomiting, and motion sickness, may be administered to a patient before a helicopter
hoist or short-haul extraction commences.
If an adequate power margin exists with the helicopter, a litter attendant is beneficial for
an injured subject during hoisting and short-haul operations. The presence of an
attendant has a considerable positive psychological influence in reducing the injured
subject’s anxiety level. Prior to transport a patient’s airway must be stable or secured
with an advanced airway device. Practice and ensure proper attendant positioning in
relation to the subject. An inclined, head-up position for the litter, and providing an
accompanying attendant to clear the subject’s airway manually could make a critical
difference. The litter attendant should have a handheld manual suction device readily
available on a tether. Unlike other forms of vomiting, vestibular emesis is not relieved by
throwing up; therefore, continual suctioning and being prepared to clear the airway
several times are vital.
Performing effective cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in-flight is simply not

practical. A subject who is already in cardiac arrest at a rescue scene is best served by
good resuscitation efforts there, rather than by attempts at wild heroics in the air.
Appropriately realistic and situation based medical protocols are essential in HEMS
patient care.
29
Holleran, Reneé Semonin. ASTNA Patient Transport: Principles and Practice, chapter 5.
30
Epilepsy Society (United Kingdom). Photosensitive Epilepsy.
31
Ibid.
41 | P a g e
The unpressurized helicopter cabin affects care of the subject during changes in
elevation because of the principles of common gas laws. Boyle’s law states that under
conditions of constant temperature and quantity, there is an inverse relationship
between the volume and pressure of a gas. As a helicopter climbs to higher altitude, a
volume of gas is forced to expand. This can lead to changes in the subject’s respiratory
rate and depth and in the performance of intravenous lines and also can affect the
rigidity of equipment such as the balloon cuffs of endotracheal tubes, vacuum
mattresses, and air splints. Elevation changes also can lead to impairment of already
injured subjects, including worsening of a pneumothorax or embolism, as well as onset
of hypoxia. A subject with a head injury or one who is combative, must be physically
and possibly pharmacologically restrained, so that there is no chance the person could
make contact with the flight controls or personnel.

Helicopter Hoist Rescue
HISTORY
Helicopter hoist is a
widely used and
efficient procedure for
both insertion and
extraction from a
rescue site. The first
civilian helicopter hoist
rescue was performed
by Dimitry “Jimmy”
Viner, Chief Test Pilot
for Sikorsky, near
Fairfield, Connecticut,
on November 29,
1945. The rescue was
initiated to save two
men stranded on an
oil barge following a
violent storm, who
were in danger of
being washed
overboard. An early Figure 19- First Helicopter Hoist Rescue. Pilot Dimitry “Jimmy” Viner, using
Sikorsky production a SikorskyR-5 Helicopter, performs a hoist rescue at Long Island Sound, on
November 29, 1945. Image copyright Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation.
model R-5 helicopter
pulled off the rescue in
32
Long Island Sound, a short flight distance from the Sikorsky factory (Figure 19).
32
Sikorsky Archives. Rescue Award- First Civilian Helicopter Rescue.
42 | P a g e
The terms hoist and winch are often incorrectly used in referring to rescue hoists. For
clarification “hoists” are used for lifting and “winches” are used for pulling. (Note:
However the British do refer to a winch for lifting, which includes “helicopter winching.”)
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Overall helicopter hoisting shortens the suspended exposure time of the rescuer
beneath the helicopter. The fixed installation of a rescue hoist on a helicopter increases
operational efficiency, even though the weight of the rescue hoist adds to the overall
equipped weight of the helicopter, thus reducing the available payload. Other helicopter
rescue techniques can require delays for reconfiguring the aircraft for the mission. The
reality of the high cost and maintenance associated with helicopter rescue hoists
means that they are primarily available through the military and public safety agencies
in larger metropolitan areas.
Helicopter rescue hoists are either electrically powered or hydraulically powered. A

hydraulic hoist requires an on-board hydraulic pump system, typically found on larger
helicopters. Overall hoist power is limited by the available aircraft power. From the
standpoint of power to weight ratio, significant advances in electrical components have
lead aircraft manufacturers to increasingly chose electrical (115 volt AC) rescue hoist
33
designs for installations. The installation design for the attachment of rescue hoists
Figure 20- Helicopter Rescue Hoist Designs. Level wind translating cable hoist where the drum is stationary
and a level wind translating drum hoist that has a moveable drum. Drawings copyright Breeze-Eastern
Corporation.
33
Teel, William. Senior Design Engineer, Goodrich Corporation.
43 | P a g e
includes both internal and external mounting styles. Internally mounted rescue hoists
are configured on a vertical column extending from the floor structure, which
mechanically pivots out the aircraft doorway during deployment. An internal hoist
configuration can be changed over quickly to other serviceable aircraft, however it
consumes useable space within the aircraft interior. Externally mounted hoists can be a
fixed installation above the aft doorway or on a moveable boom controlled by the hoist
operator, which is stowed against the helicopter fuselage during forward flight.
The two primary rescue hoist designs include the level wind translating cable hoist and
a level wind translating drum hoist (Figure 20). The “level-wind” mechanism prevents
the line from being trapped under itself on the spool during rewinding. The drum of the
translating cable hoist remains stationary, while the level wind moves back and forth
spooling or unspooling the cable. The translating drum hoist has a cable drum that
moves in front of a stationary level wind during spooling and unspooling operations.
The hoist operator works in

the open aft doorway,
secured by a safety tether
strap, or gunner’s belt, that
runs from the operator’s
harness to a fixed hard
point in the aircraft (Figure
21). The hoist operator
uses a handheld pendant
hoist control, and most
styles provide a visual
readout display of the
amount of cable in use. The
pilot is also equipped with
hoist controls on the
collective, which can
override the hoist operator’s Figure 21- Hoist operator with boomed hoist. Positioned on the
position. Older electric helicopter skid, with a secure tether to the aircraft, the hoist operator
hoists had cycle limits has an unobstructed view of the load. Image courtesy Travis County
STAR Flight, Texas.
imposed by the
manufacturer as low as two hoist uses because of overheating of the motor. Newer
hoist technology has lead to more efficient motor designs, which permit sufficient
hoisting duty cycles to fill the aircraft cabin with subjects during a rescue. 34
Hoist Cable Management

The hoist cable is truly a lifeline and must be treated with respect. Although it is a rare
occurrence, a hoist cable can fail. The factors leading to cable failure include corrosion
exposure, mistreatment or poor maintenance, operator inexperience or a dynamic
shock force that exceeds the static rated load of the cable. A poorly maintained rescue
34
Teel, William. Senior Design Engineer, Goodrich Corporation.
44 | P a g e
hoist is a serious concern that threatens operational safety. All hoist cables should be
run out from the hoist drum for a visual and tactile inspection after every hoist mission.
Hoist Cable Construction

Helicopter hoist cables are most commonly 3/16 inch (5 cm) in diameter with a mean
breaking strength (MBS) of 3,330 lbs. (1510 kg) and rated working load capacity on the
hoist of 600 lbs. (272 kg). Lighter helicopter hoists are produced with a rated working
capacity of either 450 lbs. (204 kg) or 300 lbs. (136 kg), which employ 5/32 inch
35
(3.9mm) cable with a 2,160 (979.7kg) MBS. The construction of the cable allows for
some degree of shock absorbance over the length of the cable. The cable is most
vulnerable to a shock force when there is only a few feet of cable spooled out.
The stainless steel hoist cable (wire rope) has a spin-resistant feature, which is
accomplished through the counter-wrapping of the wire strands. A free-spinning hook at
the end of the cable also serves as a swivel between the load and the hoist cable,
preventing twisting of the cable. Hoist cable lengths vary considerably, but 245 feet (75
m) of usable cable is a common working length for many rescue helicopters. The initial
20 feet (6m) and final 20 feet (6m) of cable may be marked with a high visibility color to
36
provide a visual warning indicator to the hoist operator of an approaching end.
The typical 3/16 inch (5 cm) diameter military

spec rescue hoist cable is manufactured with
austenitic (non-heat treated) stainless steel
wires configured in a nineteen by seven
strand “non-rotating” construction design,
meaning nineteen strands of seven wires
each. It is manufactured by covering an inner
wire rope of 7 X 7 left lay construction with 12
strands in a right regular lay configuration,
which creates a cable constructed of 133
individual wires (Figure 22). The spin-resistant
property that characterizes this construction is
a result of the counter torques developed by
37
the two layers. This arrangement prevents
the cable from unwinding while a load is
suspended during use. Although the military
specification refers to this as a non-rotating Figure 22- Wire Rope Cross-section.
wire rope, it is more accurately a rotation Constructed of seven inner bundles with a left
lay, surrounded by 12 counter wrapped
resistant wire rope, and will in fact rotate bundles with a right regular lay.
38
under load.
35
Doyle, Patrick. Engineer. Breeze-Eastern Corporation.
36
Dept. of Defense. Concept Evaluation of UH-60 Externally Mounted Rescue Hoist. Section 1.4.1
37
Dept. of Defense. Wire Rope Specification.
38
Mitchell, Michael. President. Zephyr International LLC.
45 | P a g e
Hoist Cable and Rescue Hook Assembly

Helicopter hoist rescue utilizes a hoist
cable attached to a rescue hook
assembly. There are several upgraded
hook assembly designs, however the
traditional military style is based upon
an older 1963 design, which consists
of two gated hooks and an eyelet
(Figure 23). The large hook is the only
portion of the rescue hook to be used
for hoisting personnel. The smaller
hook is utilized for handling equipment
or light cargo. The smaller equipment
hook on the opposite side of the
rescue hook is not intended to be
used to hoist personnel. This
equipment hook also provides a
possible point for entanglement, and
Figure 23- Helicopter rescue hook. Traditional hoist
must be managed appropriately. The hook conforming to military spec design 18027-2A.
equipment ring is an additional
attachment point intended for cargo
hoisting, and may be used to suspend chemical lightsticks during night operations. The
upper section of the hook assembly is a ball bearing swivel, crush bumper assembly,
and cable stop.
UNINTENTIONAL DISENGAGEMENT (Rollout)

The inadvertent release of a load or “rollout” from a hoist hook can occur when a
carabiner or attachment D-ring travels upward, through possible load relief, and rides
up against the safety latch of the hoist hook. This reversal up over the point of the hook
puts pressure on a non-locking safety latch, which can self-release the load. A fatal
accident occurred in December 1995, when a rescue strop separated from the hoist
hook of an Australian Navy S-70B-2 helicopter. The hoist hook was relieved of the
weight of the load, when it touched the ground before being hoisted up, thereby
permitting the connection point to become dangerously oriented across the non-locking
39
gate of the hoist hook. This dangerous phenomenon can be prevented through the
use of attachment rings, which do not permit reversing over the point of the hook, and
the use of auto-locking hoist hooks. All personnel involved in hoist rescue operations,
particularly ground rescuers, should be well-briefed on the phenomenon of rollout and
how to prevent it. This includes the use of compatibly sized connectors and the practice
of physically maintaining proper orientation of all connectors at the hoist hook during
lifting.
39
Australia Civil Aviation Safety Authority, AAC 1-103
46 | P a g e
AUTO-LOCKING HOIST HOOKS

A hoist hook with an auto-locking gate (Figure 24) provides the
greatest amount of security against inadvertent rollout as well
as accidental opening leading to entanglement of equipment or
lines at a rescue scene. The auto-locking feature provides a
latch, which is always locked for maximum safety, and requires
a positive action that must be overcome by a rescuer.
Possible Cable Damage

Visual inspection of a hoist cable is conducted following a
mission by running out the full operating length of the cable on
the ground. The cable is retracted under a tensioned load to
prevent cable fouling on the drum. Helicopter hoists have a
tensioning system, which maintains approximately 7 to 20 lbs.
Figure 24- Auto-locking hook.
(3.1-9 kg) of force on the cable, in order to prevent loosening The Aerial Auto-Lok Hook
of the wraps on the drum, however this can be defeated provides a secure gate reducing
during an inspection so a mechanically applied load may be the likelihood of rollout or
required. Hoist cable damage can include a single broken entanglement. Image copyright
wire strand as well as multiple broken strands within a section Aerial Machine and Tool.
of cable, requiring replacement of the cable. Additional
problems may include;
KINK
A loop in the cable may lead to developing a kink, which may be identified as open or
closed. An open kink is caused by pulling a cable loop tight, creating a permanent bend
which tends to open the lay of the cable. A closed kink is created in the same manner,
but creates a sharp permanent bend that tends to close the lay of the cable. A kink in a
cable significantly reduces the load capacity. The continued use of a kinked cable can
lead to the kink being caught in the cable guide assembly resulting in cable fouling.
Hoist operations should be terminated when a kinked cable develops.
ABRASION
A cable may develop abrasion if it contacts other material, such as aircraft structural
members. Dirt, sand, grit, and other foreign particles can also result in abrasion.
Abrasion weakens the cable by removing metal from the wires in the outer strands.
Cables that show signs of excessive abrasion should be removed from service.
BIRDCAGING
A deformity with a distinctive “birdcage” appearance may develop where a hoist cable
has significant stretched open or untwisted outer wraps of wire strands in an uneven or
irregular bulging manner. Minor uniform opening of strands, which can be corrected, is
not considered birdcaging. Severe birdcaging will result in a small bubble being formed
by the outer strands. Birdcaging results from torsional imbalance that occurs because
of mistreatments, such as sudden stops, cable being worked through tight sheaves, or
a hook bearing that is not rotating freely. A hoist evolution should be terminated if there
is the presence of birdcaging on a cable.
47 | P a g e
OVERLOAD
A cable that has been severely overloaded may or may not show immediate results of
the overload. Visual broken wires are the most obvious defect, however, overloading
can cause broken core wires that are not readily visible. Necking-down is a noticeable
reduction of cable diameter indicating broken internal core wires. Any cable with
necking- down is cause for immediate replacement. Any cable that is known to have
been overloaded must be replaced prior to continued hoist operations. In such
situations, the hoist operation should be terminated and excess cable reeled in if
defects do not cause cable fouling.
DEFECTIVE BALL FITTING

An improperly stored hook will cause the hook to swing in flight damaging the cable.
The terminus of the cable inside the hook has a swaged ball fitting, where broken wires
may develop. This can be prevented by properly seating the hoist cable bumper against
the cable guide bell mouth, when the hoist is not in use.
Static Discharge
Helicopters generate static electricity as air particles move over the surface of the
fuselage and rotor blades. 40 A larger helicopter in drier air generates significantly more
static electricity because a greater surface area is interacting with air particles and an
increased air mass is moving over the fuselage. Composite fuselages increase the
potential for static charge buildup. Blowing snow or dust also increases the interaction
with the aircraft and the risk of static discharge. Forward flight causes some of the static
to bleed off the tail of the aircraft. However, in a hover, the static does not bleed off.
The practice of keying the radio microphone on board the aircraft to discharge the static
has only a limited effect, because it relieves only the static in the immediate vicinity of
the antennas. 41
If static is present, the hoist cable becomes

grounded when touched by ground
personnel, who may receive a harmful shock
as the static electricity is discharged.
Rescuers can prevent this static shock by
always allowing the hoist cable to contact
the ground before they touch it. However, it
is important to remember that a static charge
rebuilds quickly (in a matter of seconds) once
42
the helicopter is no longer grounded. A
static discharge cable, which is ten feet long,
may be suspended from a hoist hook to
discharge static electricity prior to the hook Figure 25- Static discharge cable. Image copyright
actually making contact with the surface Aerial Machine and Tool Corp.
(Figure 25).
40
Croucher, Phil. Helicopter Pilot’s Handbook, page 71.
41
Martin, Adam. Aeronautical Engineer, Sikorsky Aircraft Corp.
42
Ibid.
48 | P a g e
Line Entanglement
The hazard of line entanglement has been described previously. During a helicopter
hoist rescue operations this is a very real concern as the cable reaches the ground or
structures. During hoist or short-haul rescues, a line or hook has become entangled
with rescuer packs, ices axes, harness gear loops, non-locking carabiners, and more.
These incidents have included fatal outcomes.
NOTE: All rescue personnel should be well-briefed regarding the danger of line
entanglement during helicopter hoist and short-haul operations.
Conscious efforts should be made to prevent entanglement of the hoist cable, or the
load on the line, with fixed objects on the ground. This is accomplished through
proactive planning and engineering an entanglement-free environment. The hoist
operator should maintain a visual reference with the hoist hook at all times. The
extraction phase of a short-haul should be treated as a critical phase of flight, with
increased vigilance and mental preparation toward reacting to a problem.
When hoist rescue work must be performed within close

proximity to high voltage power lines, the potential exists for
electricity to energize the hoist cable and injure personnel on the
ground. An energized high voltage power line generates electric
and magnetic fields (EMF). EMF is comprised of waves of
electric and magnetic energy moving together (radiating)
through space. The EPA warns, “A person standing directly
under a high-voltage transmission line may feel a mild shock
when touching something that conducts electricity”. 43
CABLE CUTTER
If the cable becomes
hopelessly entangled or
during an aircraft
emergency, the hoist
operator can activate an
emergency cable cutter
(Figure 26), which is an
electrically activated
squib charge that
propels a chisel-end
cutter, severing the
cable at the bell mouth,
where the cable exits the
Figure 26- Cable cutter control.
hoist. The cable cutter can Red guarded switch on hoist
also be activated through the pennant control. Image courtesy
pilot’s controls. A helicopter Travis County STAR Flight, Texas. Figure 27- AxelCut Cable
hoist operator needs to have Cutter. Image copyright
a secondary means of cutting Zephyr International.
43
EPA. Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF) Radiation from Power Lines.
49 | P a g e
the cable in the event of a squib failure. Emergency cable cutters are mounted adjacent
to the hoist operator’s station. A standard cutting device is the Zephyr International
AxleCut Cable Cutter. The two-pound device provides a lightweight (2 lbs.) one-handed
cable cutting tool that does not rely on an explosive charge and is extremely effective
(Figure 27).
CABLE SPLICE
To become operational again,
once a cable has been
sheered manually (not with use
of the hoist-mounted ballistic
cutter), it is possible to utilize a
cable splice with a spare hoist
hook as a backup device
Figure 28- Cable Splice. Image copyright Aerial Machine
(Figure 28). This permits in- and Tool.
flight replacement of the hoist
hook for the purpose of
retrieving personnel when no backup hoist or aircraft is available. The hoist cable is
laced through preconfigured notches on the cable splice plate providing a secure
friction connection. Use of the cable splice will defeat the safety features of the stop
limit switches of the rescue hoist.
BELAY LINE
The U.S. Navy is one of the only agencies requiring use of a separate belay line in
conjunction with rescue hoist operations. Their procedures read; “A belay shall be used
in conjunction with all live practice hoist training evolutions above 10 feet AGL (3m).
When hoisting personnel during actual rescue operations, use of the belay system is
highly recommended. Failure of the rescue hoist system without the safety of a belay
44
system overland may result in serious injury or death to personnel on the hoist.”
Note: Navy procedures mandate the use of a belay plate device, however it is important
to note that such commercial devices are only designed to safely manage the force
associated with a single person load.
FLEET ANGLES
The lateral center-of-gravity (CG) limits on the helicopter establish the maximum load
rating for the hoist, if less than the manufacturer’s stated hoist capacity. As excessive
loads are placed out away from an imaginary line drawn down through the rotor mast,
the helicopter becomes out of balance.
Additionally limitations may be imposed upon the angle a load is out of alignment from
the hoist itself. This angle, formed between the loaded cable and an imaginary line
drawn perpendicular to the axis of the drum, is referred to as “fleet angle.” High fleet
angles (greater than 30 degrees) can be generated spontaneously from pitching vessel
decks, swift water operations, high winds, obstacles, terrain or factors beyond the
control of the flight crew. Since high fleet angles could potentially exceed the operating
44
U.S. Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1, sec. 4.4.4
50 | P a g e
capabilities of a rescue hoist, it important to have an operating knowledge of the

manufacturer specifications.
TAG LINE (Trail Line)

A tag line (trail line) may be employed by personnel on the ground or a vessel to assist
with hoist hook delivery, however use of such a line to stabilize a litter during a hoisting
evolution is very important. The rescue litter on the end of a hoist cable can quickly
develop an uncontrollable spin in certain configurations. The use of a handheld tended
tag line between an attendant on the ground and the litter can eliminate rotational
spinning (Figure 29). The configuration can be a single point to the foot end of the litter
or a Y-configuration that secures to both the foot and head ends of the litter. The
connection point at the litter includes a quick-release to permit the hoist operator to
detach the line, once the litter reaches the aircraft doorway. Finally, a breakaway link is
configured in-line between the release mechanism and the tag line itself. This link can
be constructed from a loop of much thinner cordage, with a low breaking strength, or
lightweight cable ties. In the event the helicopter makes an emergency maneuver
during a hoisting, the tag line connection is designed to fail from the additional applied
force.
Figure 29- Hoisting with tag line. Los Angeles City Fire Department personnel aboard a twin
engine AugustaWestland AW139 prepare to receive a Bauman Bag equipped with a tagline, which
is controlled from the ground. Image courtesy of Los Angeles City Fire Department.
51 | P a g e
The standard U.S. Navy tag line

is constructed with 120 ft. (36m)
of 3/8" (9.5mm) polyethylene or
polypropylene line and is
configured with a weak-link
connection that will break with
apx. 450 lbs. (204 kg) of force. 45
It can be deployed from the
aircraft hand-over-hand with a 5
lb. (2.2 kg) weight bag attached.
The tag line connection is made
directly to the foot end of a litter
or connected into a pre-rigged v-
strap, which attaches to both the
foot and head end of a Medevac
or Stokes-type litter for hoisting.
Ground rescuers should be
wearing gloves when handling a
tag line during hoisting and the
line is not to be anchored directly
to the ground (Figure 30). Tag
lines are nonconductive and will
not ground the litter, so the litter
should be permitted to make
contact with the ground in order
to safety dissipate static
electricity.
STATIC HOIST TECHNIQUE

Use of a tagline is a standard
procedure for a military helicopter Figure 30- Preparing to hoist with tagline. U.S. Park Police
Bell 412 “Eagle One” crew conducts a rescue on Old Rag
“static hoist” evolution, where the Mountain with NPS SAR personnel at Shenandoah National
aircraft remains stationary in a Park. NPS Photo by Hazel Mehne.
hover above the rescue scene.
Be alert when working beneath
heavy-lift (Type 1) helicopters during hoist rescue operations, because the increased
rotor wash can easily cause debris from slopes or forest canopy to strike ground
rescuers, as well as cause them to lose footing.
DYNAMIC HOIST TECHNIQUE

Another helicopter hoisting method is referred to as a “dynamic hoist.” This technique
involves lowering a rescuer on the hoist, while the helicopter is on final approach to the
scene. The rescuer reaches the ground just as the aircraft is directly above the scene,
and the rescuer immediately detaches, permitting the aircraft to depart. When the
rescuer is ready for extraction with the patient, the helicopter returns, and following
connection to the hoist cable, hoisting of the load is initiated with the aircraft
45
U.S. Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1, sec. 5.4.1.7
52 | P a g e
immediately transitioning
into forward flight away
from the scene. A tag line
is not utilized. This
technique has the
advantage of significantly
reducing hover time over
the rescue site. In order to
reduce the potential for
litter spinning during the
hoist, the patient must be
packaged in a helicopter
rescue bag (e.g. Bauman
Bag) as opposed to an
open basket stretcher Figure 31- Anti-Rotation Stabilizer for helicopter hoisting attached
(e.g. Stokes). Forward to Franco Garda Stretcher. Images copyright TSL Rescue, France.
flight does tend to dampen
out rotational spinning, which can sometimes be minimized by the rescuer attendant
sticking an arm out. Attaching a tail on a rescue litter to dampen spinning in forward
flight has included the use of a small windsock or drogue parachute, however there is
the potential for such a device to become an entanglement hazard while on the ground.
French manufacturer TSL Rescue working in conjunction with helicopter rescue
personnel has developed a foldable “anti-rotation stabilizer” which is designed to be
46
attached to their lightweight composite rigid stretcher (Figure 31). The majority of
European helicopter rescue operations successfully employ dynamic hoisting in
conjunction with medium-sized (Type II) helicopters (e.g. AS350 B3, EC-145, etc.),
throughout the Alps. This technique is also employed successfully by some civilian
agencies within the United States.
HOIST OPERATOR PROCEDURES

A hoist operator monitors the cable reeling on the hoist drum for proper wrapping or
unwrapping and ensures the hoist cable does not contact any portion of the helicopter.
Helicopter skid tubes have a cable skid guard installed to prevent abrasion damage by
contact from the hoist cable. The hoist operator must be cautious not to place fingers
in or around the hoist assembly or hoist cable bumper due to the potential for a crush
injury to fingers during hoisting operations. During an extraction with an external fixed
mounted hoist, a rescuer should be briefed to maintain visual awareness as they
approach the skid tube. They need to avoid striking the skid tube with their head and
guide themselves around the skid as they are lifted up to the aircraft.
Hoist evolutions are conducted by the hoist operator maintaining control of the load
through the use of hoist controls, coordinated movement of the aircraft with the pilot,
and physical control of the cable with a leather gloved hand. The cable slack needs to
be kept to a minimum and all crewmembers must be vigilant to prevent situations that
would produce shock forces on the cable. A shock force or overloading the cable can
cause broken core wires that are not readily visible. Necking-down is a noticeable
46
TSL Rescue. Product catalogue, page 11.
53 | P a g e
reduction of cable diameter indicating broken internal core wires. If a cable receives a
significant shock force, the hoist operation needs to be terminated. Also, moderate
surface winds can aid the hoist operation, since they increase the hovering capability of
helicopter.
Litter Transfer in Exposed Terrain

During a rescue operation where the stretcher is positioned in hazardously exposed
terrain, it needs to be tethered with a dedicated safety line rigged cleanly to an anchor
system, until the helicopter extraction is actually occurring. The transfer to the hoist
cable needs to occur in a well- coordinated and accurately briefed maneuver. When the
hoist hook is delivered to the ground rescuers, a designated team member should
physically take control of it and position it within a few inches of the stretcher connection
point. When directed, a quick transfer of the stretcher connection point will be made
from the safety line to the hoist hook. During this time the stretcher will be momentarily
disconnected from the safety line, however the aircraft will not become tethered directly
to the ground. There are more advanced belaying techniques for managing a
completely suspended litter during the initial phase of a hoist extraction, which allow for
a smooth transfer of weight to hoist cable. These techniques are beyond the scope of
this text. Relocating the stretcher on to a shelf or outcropping, where the full weight is
support is supported by the rock rather than a rope system is a preferred procedure.
The exposed downhill side of the

stretcher should be considered off-
limits and kept free of personnel or
rigging. During a hoist extraction, a
rescuer stepping to the downhill side of
the litter, especially when secured by a
safety tether, places them in jeopardy
and creates the potential for
entanglement to occur.
Helicopter Rappel
HISTORY
Early use of the helicopter rappel
included military operations in combat.
The 11th Air Assault Division (U.S.
Army) introduced the earliest combat
use of helicopter rappelling in
combination with troop ladders in 1964-
1965. This was conducted in combat in
December, 1965, near An Khe in
Vietnam by the 1st Airborne Brigade of Figure 32- Heli-rappel insertion. Yosemite
47
the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile). National Park SAR (YOSAR) heli-rappeller
Helicopter rappelling, also known as descends from Bell 205A-1 helicopter (Helicopter
551). NPS photo by Dave Pope.
47
Mertel, Kenneth. Airmobile-style rappel and troop ladder, US Army Aviation Digest.
54 | P a g e
heli-rappelling, has also been used in law enforcement tactical operations and wildland
fire suppression. It was first tested for wildland fire suppression in 1964 at Shasta Lake
in Northern California. 48
Rescuer insertion can be accomplished via helicopter rappelling
(Figure 32), which offers reduced exposure time of the rescuer
beneath the aircraft compared with a helicopter short-haul.
Helicopter rappelling has inherent hazards and mishaps have
occurred involving loss of descent control, with subjects striking the
ground; a jammed descender caused by entanglement with clothing
or hair; a rappel rope that does not reach the ground; and rappeller
injury caused by striking the door threshold or skid when exiting the
helicopter.
The U.S. Navy currently employs the Sky Genie descender device Figure 33- Sky Genie
(Figure 33) and related lines in rappel operations with a separate Descender. Image
attended belay line. Following a fatal rappel accident on July 21, copyright Descent
2009, the U.S. Forest Service critically reviewed their heli-rappel Control Inc.
program for wildland fire operations and use of the Sky Genie
device. A critical factor in the associated accident was “inattentional blindness” as the
rappeller had an improperly configured connection point to his harness, resulting in a
49
unrestrained fall to the ground as they prepared to depart from the aircraft.
Figure 34- Heli-rappel. Yosemite National Park SAR personnel conduct heli-rappel training
from a Bell 205A-1 helicopter using a Petzl RIG descender. NPS photo by Peter McDermott.
48
U.S. Forest Service, Helicopter Rappel Guide. 1990, p. 2
49
U.S. Forest Service, Aircraft Accident Investigation Report, July 21, 2009.
55 | P a g e
An overhead rappel anchor point, which must be FAA approved through a

supplemental type certificate (STC) as an aircraft modification, provides the most
convenient departure for the rappeller from the aircraft (Figure 34). The length of a
helicopter rappel varies by agency preference and by environmental considerations,
which may include insertion into tall forest canopy. Rappels of 75 to 150 ft. (23 to 46 m)
are most common. Although longer rappels are possible, increased distance extends
the required hover time of the helicopter.
A helicopter rappel mission commonly involves a mission briefing, preflight inspection of

equipment, and a rappeller safety check of personal equipment. Upon arrival at a
rescue site, a reconnaissance flight is completed. The pilot then establishes hover
above the insertion site, the rappel rope is deployed and the spotter signals the rescuer
to move from his or her seat to the exit position with the descender connected to the
rappel line.
Procedures for exiting the aircraft vary based on the make of the aircraft and its
configuration. Descents are typically made outside the helicopter skid, however on
smaller aircraft agencies have employed a technique of rappelling inside the skid to
maintain the CG of the helicopter. The size and allowable payload of the helicopter can
permit rappellers to depart from both sides of the aircraft simultaneously. Egress from
the aircraft should be coordinated by the on board spotter to be as smooth as possible.
As a rappeller initiates the descent on the outside of a helicopter skid, his or her weight
is transferred laterally away from the aircraft’s CG. This has the potential to exceed the
safe operating requirements of the helicopter.
From the vantage point of the spotter and pilot

above, it is difficult to determine the height of the
rappeller from the ground. Depending on the
ambient lighting, the horizontal offset distance of
the shadow of the load, from the load itself,
provides a good reference as to for the rappeller’s
height. As the rappeller descends, the shadow
offset decreases until the shadow joins the load
just as it contacts the ground.
Helicopter Short-haul
A helicopter short-haul rescue permits the
insertion of personnel, suspended beneath a
hovering helicopter on a fixed line, as well as the
extraction of a subject or rescuers from a site
where a helicopter cannot land.
HISTORY
As early as November 1952, the so-called
Figure 35- “Helicopter Lift Technique.”
“helicopter lift” technique was utilized by Swiss Air This early predecessor to the current
Rescue, which later became known as REGA helicopter short-haul technique was
(Figure 35). Swiss Air-Rescue REGA, founded in developed in 1952 by REGA. Image
copyright REGA.
56 | P a g e
1952, is a non-profit foundation, which is a corporate member of the Swiss Red Cross.
REGA is derived from the German word Rettungsflugwacht (meaning air rescue
service), and its French name, Garde Aérienne (meaning air guard). The helicopter lift
technique involved a large hot-air balloon basket suspended directly beneath an early
model Hiller helicopter, carrying a rescuer. Although military extraction techniques (Box
7) were being developed simultaneously, Swiss Air Rescue introduced the “knotted
rope technique” in 1966 for use in mountain rescue. 50 This predecessor to helicopter
short-haul involved a line knotted at intervals that a rescuer would climb down and then
sit on a plastic disc seat at the end of the line beneath the helicopter. Parks Canada
incorporated the first civilian North American use of short-haul as the helicopter sling
rescue system (HSRS), with a rescue deployment in July 1972 on Mount Edith in Banff
National Park. 51
BOX 7. MILITARY EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES

____________________________________
Military combat helicopter extraction techniques, such

as McGuire and STABO Rigs, were developed during
the Vietnam War (1959-1975). Discrepancy exists on
whether the STABO name was contrived from
STABilized BOdy harness, the inventor names of
Stevens, Knabb, and Roberts, or finally simply
Stabilized Tactical Airborne Body Operations. These
techniques, as well as the Palmer Rig or the Jungle
Operations Extraction System (JOES), which served
U.S. Special Forces troops during the 1960s, have been
refined and now are known as the fast rope
insertion/extraction system (FRIES).
Originally, an insertion or extraction system was referred

to as a special procedure insertion and extraction
system (SPIES), but the U.S. Army has combined the
two methods into one term. FRIES now includes
insertion of troops by means of fast roping (sliding down
a large braided rope to the ground) and then extraction
on a single, fixed rope lowered from the helicopter.
Several soldiers, wearing special harnesses, attach
themselves by means of rings woven into the rope at 5-
foot (1.5m) intervals on the line (Figure 36). The soldiers
Figure 36- SPIES Training. U.S.
are lifted en mass away from the extraction site by Navy explosive ordnance disposal
helicopter. technicians participate in SPIES
training from an MH-60S
Source: Pushies, Fred. U.S. Army Special Forces, p. 109 Knighthawk helicopter. US Navy
photo by Mass Communication
Spec. 2nd Class Kenneth Abbate.
50
REGA (Swiss Air-Rescue), About Us- History.
51
Marty, Sid. Men for the Mountains, p. 198-201.
57 | P a g e
A helicopter short-haul is not a
procedure that should ever be
improvised on the spot. Ample training
of both pilot and rescue technicians is
mandatory for safe operations.
Helicopter short-haul requires pilot
proficiency in vertical reference flight
operations(Figure 36). Rescuer
proficiency is easier to maintain with the
short-haul technique than with helicopter
rappelling, since short-haul technique
requires fewer rescuer manipulations.
The exposure time of the short-haul

rescuer during forward flight is greater
than during a helicopter rappel. To
minimize this exposure time, short-haul
flights should be limited to the shortest
possible flight distance practical. The
name “short-haul” is derived from this
distance factor, rather than from the
length of line used. A major advantage
of helicopter short-haul is that hover
time can be shorter than with heli-
rappelling or “static” hoist rescue.
Additionally short-haul operations are
not restricted to the standard lengths of
helicopter hoist cables and higher load
limits than hoist operations may be
employed, since the short-haul load is
suspended directly beneath the aircraft
without lateral CG limits being a factor.
Short-haul operations do require
proximity to a landing zone to permit
configuring the aircraft for the mission
and transfer of the patient to a HEMS
aircraft or internal transport by a rescue
aircraft. Figure 37- Short-haul rescue. Grand Canyon
National Park SAR personnel conduct a short-haul
rescue of an injured subject at Mather Point with an
A single line configuration for a short- NPS MD-900 Helicopter. NPS photo.
haul line is common with most rescue
organizations. Multiple line configurations have been employed for redundancy but tend
to be cumbersome, because of the risk associated with individual lines becoming
entangled when they become slack. A pre-rigged short-haul line with a solid metal ring
or rope thimble at the terminus of the line provides rescue personnel with a point for
easy attachment during a hook-up sequence. The line length varies between agencies,
however 100-200 foot (30-60m) lengths are most common. Shorter lengths expose
58 | P a g e
ground rescuers to excessive rotor wash and the aircraft must descend closer to ground
hazards. Longer lengths create a vertical reference challenge for the pilot to control the
load.
The use of spring-loaded, auto-

locking carabiners for all connection
points, both at the aircraft and on
the end of the line, provides a
positive means to prevent in-flight
vibration from accidentally unlocking
a carabiner. It is critical that the
short-haul line be attached to an
anchor “system” on the aircraft,
which incorporates both a primary
anchor point and secondary anchor
point to prevent accidental release
(Figure 37). This redundancy in the
short-haul anchor is designed to
prevent a catastrophic loss of the
short-haul load and HEC. The Figure 38- Anchor system. Short-haul anchor system,
primary and backup anchor must be with releasable cargo hook serving as primary anchor
designed for release in an point and yoke band (red) with three-ring release
emergency by the spotter or pilot, providing secondary anchor point. NPS photo.
utilizing two separate and specific
actions. As with high-angle rope rescue systems, the static system safety factor
(SSSF) must be evaluated for the entire short-haul system from the anchor to the
rescuer harness. The SSSF is the ratio between the maximum expected static force
that is expected to be applied to the breaking strength of the weakest link in the system
(450 lb. [204 kg] load minimum). The FAA requires a SSSF of 3.5:1 for external load
attaching components as well as the associated personnel carrying device system for
52
helicopter HEC applications. The DOI applies a 10:1 SSSF stating that, “…reliance on
a single component at any point in the system should be avoided. Where single points
53
exist, annual testing and documentation should occur to ensure component reliability.”
Rescue harness selection for short-haul operations should evaluate how the rescuer
will fly when encumbered with a loaded pack. The best option is a configuration that
does not require the rescuer to grasp the line to maintain an upright orientation. This
can be accomplished by using a full-body harness with a sternal attachment point,
which raises the CG of the wear. Another option is to utilize a seat and chest harness
combination in conjunction with preconfigured tether straps (e.g. daisy chains girth
hitched to the seat harness and passed through the chest harness) that can quickly be
attached to the short-haul line.
Single-point rescuer attachment techniques are a standard for agencies involved in for
hoist or short-haul operations, but the key is that these must be configured with
52
U.S. Govt. 14 CFR. Part 27.865. External Loads.
53
DOI Helicopter Short-Haul Handbook. 2010 ed., page 7.
59 | P a g e
appropriate components to eliminate human-error or failure of this critical connection

point. A commercially produced tether strap used in conjunction with an auto-locking
carabiner is an example of such an application. To create redundancy, some agencies,
such as the National Park Service, do employ two separate rescuer attachment straps
for connection to a line during short-haul operations.
The composition of the short-haul line needs to be a material that provides a high
strength-to-weight ratio. Line selection may include nylon or Dyneema®, the latter of
which is ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). The diameter of the line
will be based upon the breaking strength of the material to achieve the 10:1 SSSF. The
short-haul line is rigged with a weight close to the lower terminus, which prevents an
unloaded line from trailing too far behind the aircraft during forward flight and getting
close to the tail rotor. This can be a 12-20 lbs. (5.4-9 kg) weight bag, which is attached
to the line.
Short-haul Operational Hazards

The danger of line
entanglement exists,
because the short-haul
line can quickly become
snarled in vegetation or
ground obstructions. The
short-haul anchor point in
the helicopter needs to be
releasable in the event of
line entanglement, which
can’t be cleared from the
ground. During extraction
operations, all rescuers
must be clear of potential
entanglement hazards
(Figure 39). Use mental
projection to ask, “What Figure 39- Critical phase of flight. All rescue personnel should be
could go wrong, and how aware of the potential for entanglement during an extraction. YOSAR
can we avoid it?” Also, personnel at Yosemite National Park conduct a short-haul rescue from
remember that a low- Royal Arches. NPS photo.
hovering helicopter is
operating within the “dead man’s curve,” which hinders the pilot’s ability to execute an
autorotation safely (Figure 40). This condition applies to hoist operations and heli-
rappel as well. A very serious problem is the rotational spinning of a loaded litter during
a short-haul evolution. Several factors can affect in-flight litter spinning, including the
manner in which the litter is rigged (off center rigging aggravates a spin), an attendant
off balance when lifted off the ground, rotor wash, and lack of forward airspeed.
Although some rescue organizations use a Stokes-style litter for short-haul rescue
operations, a helicopter rescue bag (heli-rescue bag), such as a Bauman Bag provides
a much more aerodynamic patient transport device. These were designed specifically
60 | P a g e
Figure 40 Height-Velocity Diagram.

During a hover, short-haul operations
are conducted from a height of less
than 200 feet with zero forward
airspeed, which places the aircraft
and personnel within the “dead man’s
curve.” Photo illustration by Ken
Phillips.
as aerial patient transport devices and have

proven themselves to be more aerodynamic
than a rigid basket stretcher.
Litter Transfer in Exposed Terrain (similar

to hoist procedures)
Short-haul rescue operations in exposed
technical terrain add a higher level of
complexity (Figure 41). When the stretcher is
positioned in hazardously exposed terrain, it
needs to be tethered with a dedicated cleanly
rigged safety line to an anchor system, until the
helicopter extraction is actually occurring. The
transfer to the short-haul line needs to occur in
a well-coordinated and accurately briefed
maneuver. When the terminus of the short-haul
line is delivered to the ground rescuers, a
designated team member should physically
take control of it and position it within a few
inches of the Bauman Bag connection point.
When directed, a quick transfer of the Bauman
Figure 41- YOSAR El Capitan short-haul rescue. Two

Yosemite National Park rescuers prepare to be inserted in
exposed technical terrain on El Capitan. NPS photo by
Dov Bock.
61 | P a g e
Bag connection point is made from the safety line to the short-haul line. During this time
the Bauman Bag will be momentarily disconnected from the safety line, however the
aircraft will not become tethered directly to the ground. There are more advanced
belaying techniques for managing a completely suspended litter during the initial phase
of a hoist extraction, which allow for a smooth transfer of weight to the short-haul line.
These techniques are beyond the scope of this text. The preferable scenario is to
relocate the stretcher on to a shelf or outcropping, where the full weight is supported by
the rock rather than a rope system.
Additionally, during an extraction, the exposed downhill side of the stretcher should be
kept free of personnel and rigging and considered off-limits. Stepping to the downhill
side of the litter during an extraction places a rescuer in jeopardy and creates the
potential for entanglement to occur.
Short-haul Emergency Procedures

In the event of an in-flight emergency, jettisoning a human load from beneath a
helicopter is not a realistic strategy. A crash event occurs unbelievably quickly, and the
reaction time of the spotter would likely be inadequate. Survival of short-haul personnel
during an in-flight emergency is best accomplished by having suspended personnel
remain attached to the rope while the pilot attempts an emergency landing. Rescuers
should train in advance using the parachute landing fall (PLF) technique as a means of
dissipating the energy of a hard impact. During a mission briefing, it is important that
this danger be discussed openly, as well as the planned actions of all team members.
It is imperative that everyone involved in short-haul understand how instantaneously an
in-flight emergency may occur.
Important considerations for helicopter short-haul operations include:

• An improvised helicopter short-haul during a rescue operation is dangerous.
Accidents and near-misses have occurred when agencies attempted to
improvise a short-haul rescue without pre-planning or prior training.
• Helicopter short-haul requires pilot proficiency in vertical reference and precision
placement flight operations.
• The exposure time of the short-haul rescuer during forward flight is greater than
during a helicopter rappel. To minimize this exposure time, short-haul flights
should be limited to the shortest possible flight distance practical.
• A key advantage of helicopter short-haul is that hover time is typically shorter
than with heli-rappelling or static hoist rescue operations.
• Reliable clear radio communications are critical in addition to the use of
standardized hand signals (Figure 42).
• The shadow generated by the load provides a reference for the pilot and spotter
in determining the height of the short-haul load above the ground.
• Rescuer proficiency is easier to maintain with the short-haul technique than with
helicopter rappelling, since short-haul requires fewer rescuer manipulations.
However, pilot proficiency with precision placement is significantly more critical.
• A single line configuration for a short-haul line is most common with rescue
organizations. Multiple line configurations create an added risk of entanglement
when the lines become slack.
62 | P a g e
• It is recommended that auto-locking carabiners be used for all connection points,

both at the aircraft and on the end of the line, which provides a positive means to
prevent in-flight vibration from accidentally unlocking a carabiner.
• Rescue harness selection for short-haul operations should evaluate how the
rescuer will fly when encumbered with a loaded pack (Figure 43). The best
option is a configuration that does not require the rescuer to grasp the line to
remain upright. This is accomplished by using a full-body harness with a sternal
attachment point or a seat and chest harness with preconfigured straps (e.g.
daisy chains) that can quickly be attached to the short-haul line. When not in
use, these attachment straps create a possible entanglement hazard, if left
dangling from the harness. Secure the loose ends immediately when the
attachment straps are not in use.
• Knife or shears should be carried by all personnel and readily available in the
event of line entanglement.
• FAA regulations, prohibit a person be carried as part of the external load under
IFR conditions (14 CFR-Part 133.33[f]).
Figure 42- Short-haul Hand

Signals. Courtesy Grand
Canyon National Park SAR.
63 | P a g e
Rescuer Head-to-toe Safety Checklist (HEC Techniques)

• Helmet - properly fitted, chin
strap fastened.
• Eye protection - secured.
• Fire resistant clothing -
collar up, flight suit zipped,
and loose items around neck
tucked in.
• Radio - operational and
correct frequency selected.
• Gloves - on.
• Sleeves - down and secured
over gloves.
• Harness - properly fitted,
buckles correctly fastened,
no twists, and loose straps
secured. Double-check
follow-through buckles.
Means of attachment is
properly secured to harness
and locking carabiners are
functional.
• Knife - easily accessible and
secured.
• Footwear - Aviation Life
Support Equipment (ALSE)
approved Figure 43- Denali Short-Haul Training. Well-equipped for
• Top of boots covered - the extreme conditions of a high altitude rescue operation, a
pants or flight suit provides rescuer conducts short-haul training at Denali National Park
& Preserve. Image copyright Menno Boermans.
coverage in seated position,
if riding in aircraft.
Helicopter Short-Haul Checklist (Pre-Mission)

• Cargo - non essential items removed. Additional equipment secured.
• Cabin - configured for short-haul mission (e.g. doors removed, etc.)
• Anchor – anchor points and release system installed, tested, and secure.
• Short-haul line - correctly attached to primary and backup anchors.
• Spotter attachment - tether secure.
• Seat belts - secured and operational.
• Radios - operational (radio check performed) and correct frequency selected.
• Intercom - operational. (Use of a “hot microphone” is not advisable, due to other
air traffic or ground personnel attempting to make radio contact).
64 | P a g e
Helicopter Rescue Appliances

Helicopter Rescue Bags
Designed for the specific purpose as an
aerial patient transport device, helicopter
rescue bags (heli-rescue bags) have proven
themselves to be more aerodynamic than a
rigid basket stretcher alone. Helicopter
rescue bags, which have their origins in
Europe, are non-rigid hammock-like
stretchers typically constructed of
Cordura™ and have suspension straps that
join to a single connection point overhead Figure 44- Bauman Bag Stretcher. Image
(Figure 44). A rescue subject is well protected copyright CMC Rescue.
from rotor wash and environmental conditions when
thoroughly packaged in the helicopter rescue bag,
however some sort of spinal immobilization device (e.g.
backboard or vacuum mattress) is required to provide
the bag with rigidity. The stability of a helicopter rescue
bag in flight makes it a superior choice for patient
transport during a helicopter hoist or short-haul rescue in
land SAR applications. A litter attendant can be
attached from the master attachment point to be
suspended adjacent to the stretcher (Figure 45).
Many U.S. organizations employ the Canadian produced

“Bauman Bag”. According to Mavis Bauman, the bag
was initially sold to Banff National Park by her sewing
firm, Rainy Day Equipment Ltd., in January 1980, after
working closely with Peter Fuhrmann of Parks Canada
beginning in the late 1970’s. He sought to obtain a better
product over the cotton European “Jenny Bag” that his
54
agency was employing at the time.
Figure 45- Attendant rigged
Helicopter rescue bags are also commercially produced in with Bauman Bag Stretcher.
Europe by Kong (Italy), Tyromont (Austria) and RedVac NPS photo.
(Austria). The evolution of all helicopter rescue bags come
from the “lifesaving rescue net” developed by Fritz Buhler of Swiss Air Rescue in 1966.
Buhler designed this lightweight horizontal patient transport net, which was small
enough to be carried in a rescuer’s pocket. Today REGA (Rettungsflugwacht - Garde
Aérienne) aka Swiss Air-Rescue still actively employs this lightweight horizontal open
net as one of their patient transport devices.
54
Bauman, Mavis. Rainy Day Equipment Ltd.
65 | P a g e
Collapsible Rescue Basket

The standard collapsible rescue basket (Figure
46), also referred to as McCauley Basket, is
primarily designed for lifting one survivor at a time
during a hoist rescue. There is a larger
commercially produced version, which can
transport more than one subject. Once the rescue
basket is lowered to a subject, it can be easily
utilized by a conscious and mobile individual
without direct rescuer assistance. The basket,
employed by the U.S. Coast Guard and U.S.
Navy, has integrated flotation attached to the
frame. Total weight is 39 lbs. (17.6kg).
Prior to deployment, the collapsed rescue basket

is laid out on a flat surface and the upper frame is
lifted straight up, then the four internal support
brackets of the collapsible rescue basket are
Figure 46- Collapsible Rescue Basket.
moved into a locked position, which maintain the Folded configuration (top) for storage and
deployed shape of the basket. The support bails open configuration (bottom) for deployment.
are locked in place with a bail locking Image copyright Lifesaving Systems Corp.
mechanism (Figure 47), which serves to keep
them from dropping down when the helicopter
hoist hook is not attached. The helicopter hoist
hook is attached to the lifting eye of the rescue
basket. A subject being transported in the net,
positions themself with their back against either
end of the rescue basket.
When a rescuer is available to provide loading

Figure 47- Bail locking mechanism.
assistance, they should instruct the subject to keep Must properly engaged on collapsible
all body parts inside the rescue basket, and not rescue basket to keep bails and lifting
attempt to get out of the rescue basket until directed eyes properly aligned. Image
by the helicopter crew chief. When the rescue basket copyright Lifesaving Systems Corp.
has been hoisted up to the aircraft, the helicopter
crew chief simultaneously pulls the basket into aircraft cabin, while slowly reeling out
with the hoist cable, until rescue basket is at a safe position within the cabin to safely
unload a subject.
Rescue Net (Billy Pugh Net)

The rescue net (Billy Pugh Net model 872-SF) is a standard rescue device utilized by
the US Navy. With its flotation collar, it is deployed in the maritime environment for
situations involving multiple subjects. The rescue net (Figures 48 and 49) can
accommodate up to two survivors or one survivor accompanied by a rescue swimmer.
Chemical light sticks can be attached to the rescue net at night. The rescue net is
lightweight and may become unstable while hoisting down to the water due to winds or
66 | P a g e
Figure 49- Rescue Net. Billy Pugh Figure 48- Deployment of rescue net. The net is
model 872-SF. Image copyright Life readied for hoist deployment with locking sleeves slid over
Support International. the rib supports to maintain the overall shape of the net.
Illustration courtesy U.S. Navy.
rotor wash. Personnel ride seated

unsecured in the net, which by
design causes the subject’s weight
to tilt them to the rear of the net
(Figure 50). Without rescuer
assistance, it can be difficult for a
subject to gain entry, since the net
is designed to collapse, and an
improperly positioned person can
easily fall from the net.
The Navy follows a procedure

during a hoist rescue, of bringing
the net inside the aircraft doorway
where the bottom of the net is
attached to an anchor point with a
“V” strap. This is secured, prior to
having subjects exit the net, since
the net could swing out, and away
from the helicopter as the survivor
exits the net endangering both the
exiting survivor, and any personnel
55
still inside the rescue net. Weight Figure 50- Ice rescue with rescue net. U.S. Park Police Bell
20 lbs. (9 kg) Open Dimensions H 412 Helicopter performs hoist extraction with rescue net
during ice rescue training with Montgomery County, MD,
54" (1.3m) x W 50" (1.2m) x L 35" Department of Fire and Rescue Services Water Rescue
(0.8m). Team. Park Police photo by Lt. David Schlosser, USPP.
55
U.S. Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1, sec 1.4.4.3
67 | P a g e
Medevac Litter
This litter, utilized by the U.S. Navy and U.S.
Coast Guard, is suitable for rescues from
confined areas, such as interior spaces of a ship,
with its narrow profile (Figure 51). The litter has a
system of flotation components to provide
increased protection for a packaged subject
during a maritime rescue. It is constructed of a
tubular stainless steel frame and skids with a
break-apart design. Sliding couplers are used to
secure the two halves of the litter together. The
Medevac litter can be hoisted in either vertical or
horizontal positions. It is supplied with two litter
bearer harnesses for Figure 51- Medevac Litter.
carrying the litter on the Shown configured for
ground. The litter weighs deployment and (right) stowed
32 lbs. (14.5 kg). in storage bag. Image copyright
Lifesaving Systems Corp.
Rescue Seat or Forest Penetrator (Jungle Penetrator)

The rescue seat or forest penetrator (Figure
52) was developed during the Vietnam War
(circa 1966) to replace the horse-collar lifting
device being used at the time (which would
not penetrate the vegetation canopy when
deployed from a helicopter). This device is
designed to accommodate up to three seated
subjects for hoisting, however two is much
more practical. It is attached by a ring at the
top to a helicopter hoist hook. The rescue
seat measures 34 inches (0.8m) long, 7
inches (17 cm) in diameter with the seat
flanges folded, 26 inches (0.6m) in diameter
with seat flanges extended, and weighs 23
pounds (10.4 kg). It has a rated capacity of
600 pounds (272 kg).
The unit is bright yellow for high visibility.

Each seat is approximately 12 inches (30 cm)
long and is spring loaded in the retracted
position. A spring-loaded retaining latch under
each seat secures the seat in the extended
position (Figure 53). To release the seat from
the extended position, push down on the seat Figure 52- Rescue Seat (Forest
and pull down on the latch. The seat will then Penetrator). Image copyright Kaman
snap back into the retracted position. Three Aerospace.
webbing safety straps are available to secure
68 | P a g e
subjects. The straps terminate with a

yellow fabric marked TIGHTEN. Yellow
webbing tabs, marked PULL OUT, are
sewn to the safety straps and extend
from one of three stowage openings.
According to the manufacturer, a
subject takes a seated position with
one paddle beneath each leg so they
are seated on two paddles.
The rescue seat should not deployed

to civilian subjects without the aid of a
rescuer for safety. It is important the
hoist cable not get entangled in any
way prior to hoisting. Upon reaching
the aircraft doorway, a seated subject
should not be grabbed from the back,
since it could cause them to slip off the Figure 53- Rescue Seat (Forest Penetrator).
rescue seat. When the subject is at the Shown (left) folded for insertion and (right) open for
extraction. Image copyright Kaman Aerospace.
cabin door, facing away from the
aircraft, the helicopter crewmember
should place an arm around the subject’s waist and the
rescue seat and guide them backward into the aircraft
cabin. Only one survivor, or one survivor accompanied
by a rescuer is hoisted at one time, since it is difficult for
a crew chief to recover two subjects into the aircraft
alone. The rescue seat is utilized in the maritime and
terrestrial environments, however it is unsuitable for
deployment in technical exposed terrain (e.g. cliff
rescue). It should also be employed with caution in a
water rescue and is also unsuitable for deployment in a
swiftwater environment.
A lightweight version of the traditional rescue seat

(Figure 54) is manufactured by Lifesaving Systems
Corporation, which is 18 lbs. (8 kg) and has a rated
breaking strength 3,750 lbs. (1701 kg). Patterned after
the military Forest Penetrator, the LSC Rescue Seat is
equipped with two folding seats. Each fold-down seat is
equipped with a safety strap on opposite sides of the
float collar. The unit has been approved for use by the
U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force. Figure 54- Rescue Seat
(Lightweight version). Image
copyright Lifesaving Systems Corp.
69 | P a g e
Tag Line/Trail Line

The Navy employs a tag line that is deployed from a pre-rigged roll-up pouch (Figure
55). The terminus of the tag line has a weak link constructed with a loop of thin cord,
which is attached to the equipment ring of the hoist hook assembly with a spring clip.
The tag line is deployed from the helicopter by hand with a weight attached and gloves
for ground personnel if required.
Figure 55- Trail line deployment. Deployment configuration from standard rollup trail line
pouch. Compiled from U.S. Navy illustrations.
Additional Personnel Lifting Devices
To avoid a mishap due to unfamiliar equipment, military procedures preclude hoisting a

SAR victim utilizing their own personal harness.
Rescue Strop
The rescue strop (aka "horse-collar")
is designed as a retrieval device for
uninjured personnel. The rescue strop
fits around the chest of a single
subject and is connected back to the
rescue hook assembly (Figure 56).
The strop is not meant to be utilized
on victims who have sustained
significant spinal injury unless the
circumstances does not permit
Figure 56- Rescue Strop. Image copyright Lifesaving
appropriately securing the injured Systems Corp.
subject in a more appropriate device.
The strop is typically a buoyant device
70 | P a g e
made with closed cell foam constructed with a high visibility

external cover. A rescue subject should be instructed to
keep their hands below shoulder level during extraction. An
adjustable groin strap with an adjustable strap is used for
greater security.
Another strop device manufactured by Aerial Machine and

Tool, known as the Human Extraction and Lifting Device
(HELD), can be placed on a subject in a closed or open
configuration and allows cinching around the chest for a
secure means of rescue or extraction (Figure 57). When
placed around a subject the device can be secured without
having to open the hoist hook gate.
Caution: Deploying a rescue strop to a subject without

the aid of a rescuer is not recommended. Rescue strop
recovery without proper application has resulted in
subjects falling out of the device during extraction with
fatal consequences.
A “hypothermic lift” (referred to as “double-lift method” by

USN) is utilized for water rescue of hypothermic subjects.
The rescue strop is used in conjunction with a second quick
strop, placed in a manner to lift from behind the Figure 57- Human Extraction and
subject’s knees placing them in a semi semi-supine Lifting Device (HELD). Image
position. copyright Aerial Machine and Tool.
Quick Strop
The quick strop (Figure 58) is similar in
design to the rescue strop. It is placed
under the arms, around the back, or over
the head of a subject. It can be deployed
quickly around a subject. The quick strop
has a friction slide that can snug the strop
around the subject. There is a length-
adjustable strap that is folded into a
pocket on the back of the quick strop.
The strap terminates in a snap hook. This
strap is routed between the survivor’s
legs and then clipped into the friction
slide when the survivor is unconscious.
Note: U.S. Coast Guard requires the use Figure 58- Quick Strop. A slider buckle cinched
of the crotch strap when an unconscious, down against the chest of a subject, used in
unresponsive, or incapacitated subject is conjunction with a groin strap, provides security
56
being hoisted. during hoisting. Image copyright Lifesaving Systems
Corp.
56
U.S Coast Guard- Helicopter Rescue Swimmer Manual, page 2-14.
71 | P a g e
Rescue Evacuation Triangle (Petzl Pitagor)

The Petzl EvacuationTriangle (Petzl Pitagor) is
a quick application extraction seat, which can
be used for hoist or short-haul extractions of a
subject (Figure 59). It is designed to fit around
adults and smaller subjects down to 44 lbs. (20
kg). The evacuation triangle is not designed to
be utilized on victims who have sustained
potential significant spinal injury unless the
situation does not allow time to appropriately
secure the victim’s spine in a more appropriate
device. For easy deployment, the Petzl label
on the outside can be used to orient the
product in the correct manner. Place the label
upright in the center of the subject’s back and
then place their arms through the webbing
loops. The adjustable yellow strap is brought
through the subject’s legs. All three metal lifting
rings are then oriented without twists and
secured together with an auto-locking
carabiner. The evacuation triangle is designed
for the evacuation of an upright subject and is
utilized by non-DoD agencies. The triangle Figure 59- Evacuation triangle. Petzl
weighs 2.8 lbs. (1.29 kg) and has a rated Pitagor. NPS photo.
strength of 20 kN (4,496 lbf.)
Screamer Suit
The Bauman Screamer Suit
(Figure 60), manufactured by
Rainy Day Equipment, is a quick
donning vest-style rescue
device which permits rapid
extrication of a subject by
means of short-haul or hoisting.
It hold the subject in a semi-
seated manner and is not
intended for a patient with a
spinal injury or other injury
requiring a litter evacuation The
device, which adjusts from
small patients to large patients
up to 500 lbs. (227 kg), avoids
the delay associated with
putting on a harness.
Figure 60. Bauman Screamer Suit. Quick donning
rescue device designed for evacuation of a subject with
limited injuries. Image copyright CMC Rescue.
72 | P a g e
Hoisting Vest
The military hoisting vest (Figure 61) is
constructed of lightweight nylon mesh
material and is designed to accommodate
one person. To ease donning and size
adjustment of the vest, two adjustable torso
straps are easily attached to the lifting V-Ring
for hoisting. The vest takes up little room and
is easily donned for transfer of uninjured or
ambulatory personnel. It should not be
utilized for water rescues.
Figure 61- Military Hoisting Vest.

Image courtesy U.S. Navy.
Post Incident Considerations

After-Action Review (AAR/Hot Wash/Hot Debrief)
At the conclusion of a helicopter rescue operation equipment needs to be rehabbed
and repacked, however it is also crucial to review the effectiveness of the operation.
The overall goal of any incident review is improve future responses, which prevents
repeating known deficiencies and operational shortcomings. Conducting an after-action
review (AAR) immediately at the conclusion of the incident effectively captures
feedback from all involved personnel. The strength of immediacy in conducting the
review is that personnel are actually more receptive then to discussing any flaws in the
operation. With the passage of time, personnel develop mental justifications for less
than optimal performance and are less receptive to discussions critical of their actions.
Use an organized format to keep the AAR productive and on track (Box 8).
BOX 8. FORMAT FOR CONDUCTING AFTER-ACTION REVIEW:

1. What Was Planned?
• List the objectives and expected actions.
2. What Actually Happened?
• Review any actions that were not standard operating procedure for
safety concerns.
3. Why Did It Happen?
• Discuss the reasons for ineffective or unsafe performance.
• Concentrate on what, not who, is right.
4. What Can We Do Next Time?
• Identify effective and ineffective performance.
• Determine how to apply the lessons learned to the next operation.
Adapted from Incident Response Pocket Guide (NFES #1077), NIFC, Boise, ID.
73 | P a g e
During the debriefing, focus on WHAT not WHO. When an operational deficiency is
recognized attempt to identify the specific root cause so that appropriate corrective
action can be implemented. Taiichi Ohno, visionary Toyota executive and an architect
of the Toyota Production System, encouraged his staff to investigate the problem at the
source and to “ask ‘why’ five times about every matter”. 57 It is a good technique to make
sure that you are really getting down to the root cause of an issue. What truly caused
that to happen?
The helicopter rescue pack was missing some equipment. Why? The pack was
not resupplied following the last incident. Why? The pack was left in a vehicle.
Why? There is no formal equipment check-in established following a response.
Why? Such a practice was not necessary in the past. Why? The team was
smaller and the informal procedures were adequate…
Incident Review
Large-scale incidents, particularly those involving numerous agencies can be better
managed through a formal incident review, which is truly a more formal AAR. This
should be scheduled within a few days of the incident.
Considerations for a successful incident review:

• Extend invitations to representatives from all involved agencies.
• Utilize a comfortable location without distractions.
• Employ a neutral facilitator for a very large AAR event.
• Establish the ground rules. Encourage candor and openness. This is not a
critique. It is an open and honest professional discussion.
• Adhere to an agenda or posted format that provides structure on what will be
covered.
• Identify best practices and lessons learned.
• Address operational deficiencies.
• Capture action items for future improvement and who will address it with
deadlines.
• Document the discussion points and distribute to the involved agencies.
Incident Review Points

• WAS IT SAFE?
• WAS IT EFFECTIVE?
• WAS IT EFFICIENT?
Review the following factors:

• Policy & Procedures
• Training
• Resources & Equipment
• Command & Control
57
Toyota Motor Corporation. Ask “Why” Five Times About Every Matter.
74 | P a g e
Helicopter Rescue Training Considerations

1. Review your internal agency aviation guidelines and make sure that written
operating procedures are current.
2. Conduct basic helicopter safety training for all personnel who will be involved in
aviation activities.
3. Carry out pre-mission training with trained personnel and outside agencies for
specific helicopter rescue techniques that will be used (Figure 62).
4. Employ a progressive training approach, evolving from classroom ground-based
instruction, to mock-ups, and then finally operational training flights.
5. Include typical terrain training, which is as realistic, yet controlled, as possible. This
helps highlight deficiencies in equipment or procedures that could become a
problem during an actual mission.
6. Maintain skill proficiency on a regular and recurring basis. Without the benefit of
repeated exposure to helicopter operations, personnel lose their composure and
discipline.
Figure 62- Helicopter

Rescue Training.
Yosemite National Park
SAR (YOSAR) personnel
brief with California
Highway Patrol AS350B3
crew from Fresno,
California, prior to
conduct hoist rescue
training. NPS photo by
Dave Pope.
Summary
In April 1944, three downed British soldiers and an American airman in the battlefield of
Burma heard the strange sound of an experimental Sikorsky YR-4 overhead. The pilot,
Lt. Carter Harman of the U.S. Army Air Force, is credited with making this first recorded
rescue operation involving a helicopter. In the heat and humidity Lt. Harman was only
able to carry one passenger at a time to a sandbar airstrip ten miles away for a
rendezvous with another aircraft. Harman conducted this heroic feat over 600 miles
away from his base. 58
58
Friends of the Helicopter Museum, First Helicopter Combat Rescue.
75 | P a g e
BOX 9. CHARACTERISTICS OF SAFE OPERATIONS

• Well briefed
• Clear desired results
• Clear team expectations
• Clear responsibilities
• Identification of available resources
• Established climate for learning
• Climate that values input
• Positive attitude/High morale
• High degree of accountability at all levels
• Atmosphere of self-critique
In more than half a century, helicopter

rescue operations have greatly evolved
and become more commonplace.
Unfortunately, so have helicopter
accidents. Studying helicopter rescue
accidents, it quickly becomes apparent that
the personnel involved in these missions
had the best of intentions. These fellow
professionals had no intention of becoming
injured or dying in the line of duty.
Unfortunately, decisions were often made
that involved the sacred breach of safety
procedures and the outcome cannot be
reversed.
This text alone cannot provide all the

insight and knowledge required to train
personnel adequately in helicopter rescue
techniques (Figure 63). It is essential that
interested rescue personnel contact other
agencies currently using these techniques
to learn from experienced personnel.
Aggressively seek out information, cross-
train with other rescue units, and share
ideas. Focus on managing a safe
helicopter rescue program (Box 9).
Progress slowly and cautiously in Figure 63- Grand Teton Short-haul Rescue.
developing any helicopter rescue program. Lightning strike mass-casualty incident resulting in
Improvisation in the middle of a rescue is a seven injured and one fatality at Grand Teton
recipe for an accident. National Park. NPS photo by Leo Larson.
Finally, be disciplined with the use of a helicopter and avoid violating any safety
practices as well as deviating from policies or procedures in the heat of battle.
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Suggested Reading and Resources

Chartres John. Helicopter Rescue. Ian Allan Ltd. Surrey, London, UK. 1980,
Department of the Interior. Aviation Policy: Departmental Manual 350 through 353.
Office of the Secretary of the Interior, Washington, DC., December 26, 1996.
http://amd.nbc.gov/library/dm/index.htm Accessed January 30, 2012
Department of Interior, Office of Aircraft Services (OAS). http://oas.doi.gov/

Helicopter Rescue and Response Association (HRRA):

http://helirescueassociation.org/ Accessed January 30, 2012.
Phillips, Ken. Short-haul Helicopter Rescue, Rescue Magazine 6(3): 30-41, May/June
1993, JEMS Communication, Carlsbad, CA.
Phillips, Ken. Helicopter Safety, Rescue Magazine 10(1): 38-44, January/February

1997, JEMS Communication, Carlsbad, CA.
Shimanski, Charlie. Helicopters In Search and Rescue Operations: Basic and

Intermediate Levels. Mountain Rescue Association. 2008
http://www.mra.org/training/mountain-rescue-training. Accessed July 24, 2013.
US Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration: Federal aviation

regulations (FAR), electronic CFR: title 14—Aeronautics and space:
http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&tpl=/ecfrbrowse/Title14/14tab_02.tpl
Accessed January 30, 2012.
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Glossary
After-Action Review (AAR)- A formal operational review, conducted in a controlled
setting, to review the best practices and any identified deficiencies associated with an
incident along with possible corrective actions. This process should include personnel
from all involved agencies and can be conducted several days following an incident.
Air Traffic Control (ATC)- A service provided to pilots by ground-based controllers who
direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide advisory
services in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent
collisions, organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and provide information and other
support for pilots.
Autorotation- A rotorcraft flight condition in which the lifting rotor is driven entirely by
the action of the air while the rotorcraft is in motion. No engine power is supplied to the
main rotor, and lift is developed from the free turning of the rotor blades, which are
driven by aerodynamic forces. Rotor inertia is used as the helicopter nears the ground
to control the descent.
Aviation Life Support Equipment (ALSE)- All related survival, protective emergency,
and rescue devices employed to provide personal protection for aviation crewmembers.
This includes, but is not limited to flight helmets, flight suits, harnesses, personal locator
beacons, life vest, etc.
Basic Empty Weight- The starting point for weight computations is the basic empty
weight, which is the weight of the standard helicopter, optional equipment, unusable
fuel, and full operating fluids including full engine oil.
Bingo Fuel- A pre-briefed amount of fuel for an aircraft that would allow a safe return to
the base of intended landing.
CASEVAC (Casualty evacuation)- Military term for the emergency patient evacuation
of casualties from a combat zone. Military call sign “Dustoff.” The difference between a
CASEVAC and a medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) is that a MEDEVAC uses a
standardized and dedicated medical vehicle providing en route care. On the other hand,
CASEVAC uses non-standardized and non-dedicated vehicles that may not be able to
provide enroute care.
Center of Gravity (CG)- The point in a helicopter where all forces are balanced. In a
single-rotor helicopter, this is a range forward or aft beneath the rotor mast. The
distribution of the weight of the fuel, the personnel, and the cargo in the helicopter
affects this critical balance for safe flight.
Clear Text- A spoken communication style that avoids the use of any abbreviated
codes in order to facilitate understanding by all emergency personnel.
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Combat Search And Rescue (CSAR)- Operations conducted in the battlefield to

rescue or perform medical evacuations of military personnel.
Collective Pitch System- The flight control mechanisms by which the pitch of all rotor
blades is varied equally and simultaneously. The collective pitch control regulates the
pitch angle of the main rotor blades. It is used as the primary power control. As the
pitch of the blades is increased, lift is induced, causing the helicopter to lift off the
ground, hover, or climb, as long as power is available.
Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)- Accident occurring when an airworthy aircraft
under the complete control of the pilot is inadvertently flown into terrain, water, or an
obstacle. The pilots are generally unaware of the danger until it is too late. Many CFIT
accidents occur because of loss of situational awareness.
Crew Engineer (CE) or “Crew Chief”- Flight crewmember who performs maintenance
on the aircraft (military) and performs rescue duties, such as operation of the helicopter
hoist.
Crew Resource Management (CRM)- Initially known as cockpit resource

management, crew resource management involves the application of team
management concepts to reduce human error and improve safety, particularly in high
risk environments. CRM emphasizes team effectiveness by enhancing individual and
aircrew performance in communication, situational awareness, effective leadership and
management, and crew coordination. CRM makes optimum use of all available
resources - equipment, procedures and people - to promote safety and improve
situational awareness.
Cyclic- The flight control mechanism that permits the helicopter to move forward,
sideways, and backward by corresponding tilting of the rotor disc.
Density Altitude (DA)- The actual pressure altitude corrected for temperature and
humidity, which provides a measure of the air density. The higher the DA, the less lift a
helicopter can achieve. Higher temperatures or higher elevation cause the air to be
less dense, resulting in less lift for the rotor blades.
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)- A navigation means employing a VOR or ILS

localizer beacon to enable aircraft to measure their position relative to that beacon.
Aircraft send out a signal, which is sent back after a fixed delay by the DME ground
equipment.
Dynamic Rollover- Dynamic rollover occurs when some factor causes the helicopter to
roll or pivot around a skid, or landing gear wheel, until its critical rollover angle is
reached. If the critical rollover angle is exceeded, the helicopter rolls on its side
regardless of the cyclic control corrections made. Dynamic rollover may also occur if
the pilot does not use the proper landing or takeoff technique or while performing slope
operations. Dynamic rollover can occur in both skid and wheel equipped helicopters,
and all types of rotor systems.
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Fast Rope Insertion/Extraction System (FRIES)- A combat or tactical helicopter

deployment technique, also known as “fast roping”. Not traditionally considered a SAR
technique.
Flight Following- The method and process by which an aircraft is tracked from
departure point to destination. Flight following is the knowledge of the aircraft and
condition with a reasonable degree of certainty such that, in the event of mishap, those
on board may be rescued in a timely manner. It is typically accomplished through a
position check on the radio at regular intervals.
Fuel Weight- The weight of the onboard aircraft fuel load. Domestically Jet-A is used
within the U.S. for turbine helicopters, which is 6.8 pounds per (US) gallon. JP-8 is a jet
fuel, which is less flammable and safer for combat survivability, specified and used
widely by the US military. The U.S. Navy uses a similar formula, JP-5.
GAR (Green-Amber-Red) Risk Assessment Model- Assessment tool that surveys the
perceived risk for an activity, and most importantly, facilitates open discussion by
participants. Employing a numerical rating for elements of the activity the total risk score
is characterized as green-go, amber-caution or red-stop. The strength of the model is
found in the group discussion on risk that is generated by the process.
Gross Weight- The sum of the basic empty weight and useful load.
Ground Effect- When a helicopter is in a low hover, the ground interrupts the airflow
under the helicopter, and the velocity of the induced airflow to the rotor system is
reduced. The result is less induced drag and a more vertical lift vector. This ground
cushion, or ground effect, is beneficial in flight because it increases lift capability for the
helicopter, which therefore requires less power to maintain a hover. Ground effect
occurs when the helicopter is at a very low altitude, usually one half the rotor diameter.
Ground effect is hampered by uneven terrain, vegetation, or water beneath the rotor
disc.
Heavy Helicopter- A helicopter with a certified gross weight greater than 12,500
pounds (5,670 kg). Under the ICS helicopter typing system, a heavy helicopter is a
Type 1 helicopter; it must have an allowable payload at 59°F (15°C) at sea level of
5,000 pounds (2,268 kg) and capability of 15 or more passenger seats.
Height-Velocity Curve- A chart in the helicopter flight manual that indicates the
combinations of altitude and forward airspeed required to ensure a safe autorotation.
Helibase- Under the incident command system (ICS), a designated facility for
conducting helicopter operations that has refueling capability. The U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) term for a permanent helicopter facility is heliport.
Helicopter- A rotorcraft that depends principally on its engine-driven rotors for vertical
and horizontal motion.
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Helicopter Emergency Medical Services (HEMS)- A civil or public helicopter

operation with a dedicated function of conducting aeromedical patient care and
transport.
Helicopter Rappel- Insertion of personnel at a site by means of rappelling on a fixed

rope from a helicopter in a hover.
Helispot- A temporary helicopter landing zone (LZ), which may incorporate a natural or
an improved takeoff and landing area.
High Frequency (HF)- The spectrum of radio frequencies in the 3 MHz to 30 MHz
range.
Hoist Rescue- Insertion or extraction of personnel on a lightweight cable using an

electric or hydraulic hoist that is anchored to a helicopter.
Hot Debrief (Hot Wash)- The immediate review after an emergency response
operation, conducted with involved personnel, to identify operational deficiencies and
planned corrective actions. Conducted immediately at the conclusion of the operational
assignment.
Hover- A condition of flight in which the helicopter remains fairly stationary over a given
point, moving neither vertically nor horizontally.
Hover Ceiling- The highest altitude at which a helicopter can successfully hover while
loaded to its maximum gross weight. In and out of ground effect hover ceilings are
computed at maximum gross weight.
Hover in Ground Effect (HIGE)- To operate at an altitude (usually equal to one half the
rotor diameter above the surface) at which the positive influence of ground effect is
attained.
Hover Landing- A landing that does not meet the definition of toe-in, single-skid, or
step-out landings. Hover landings are characterized by a need to maintain a substantial
amount of hover power while the landing gear is not in contact with the surface. Hover
landings normally are required because of the nature of the surface (e.g., swampy
ground, tundra or muskeg, snow, or lava rock).
Hover Out of Ground Effect (HOGE)- Hovering at a high enough altitude that the
added benefit of ground effect is not obtained.
Human External Cargo (HEC)- Lifting and transport of personnel outside or beneath a
helicopter during flight (e.g. hoist rescue or short-haul)
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Human Factors- A discipline of study that deals with the psychological, social,
physical, biological and safety characteristics of a user and the system they are in, such
as the human-machine interface.
Incident Command System (ICS)- A standardized command and control framework

which is utilized nationwide to many emergency and all-hazard incidents. For additional
information refer to FEMA website; http://www.fema.gov/incident-command-system.
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)- FAA rules governing the operation of aircraft in weather
conditions below the minimum for flight under visual flight rules; that is, conditions
under which instruments are essential for flight navigation.
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC)- The weather conditions including

visibility, cloud distance, cloud ceilings, and weather phenomena that cause visual
conditions to drop below minimum required to operate by visual flight referencing. IMC
refers to the physical weather, while IFR represents the regulations and restrictions that
a pilot must observe.
Klick- military slang: kilometer.
Knot (kt)- A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km) per hour, approximately
1.15 statute miles per hour.
Landing Zone (LZ)- Any improved or unimproved helicopter landing site that has an
adequate touchdown pad and approach and departure paths. Under ICS, a landing
zone is referred to as a helispot or helibase.
Light Helicopter- A helicopter with a certified gross weight of less than 6,000 pounds
(2,721 kg). Under the ICS helicopter typing system, a light helicopter is a Type 3
helicopter; it must have an allowable payload at 59° F (15º C) at sea level of 1,200
pounds (544 kg) and four to eight passenger seats.
Load Calculation- Calculation of the helicopter's lifting capability for a given altitude
and temperature.
Longline- A line or set of lines, including steel cable or synthetic material, used for
external sling load operations to deliver supplies to a site where a helicopter could not
safely land.
Low-Level Operations- Flight conducted below 500 feet AGL.
LZ- slang: landing zone
Maximum Gross Weight- The certified maximum allowable weight of an aircraft, as

determined by the manufacturer and approved by the FAA, at which that particular
aircraft can safely fly. This weight is the equipped weight of the aircraft plus that of the
useful load (i.e., pilot, passengers, cargo, and fuel). Most helicopters have an internal
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maximum gross weight, which refers to the weight within the helicopter structure and an
external maximum gross weight, which refers to the weight of the helicopter with an
external load.
Maximum Performance Takeoff- A steep ascent upon takeoff, done to clear

obstacles, that involves limited forward airspeed and that approaches the flight
limitations of the helicopter.
MEDEVAC (medical evacuation)- The timely, efficient movement and en route care by
medical personnel of the wounded, injured, and ill persons, from the battlefield and
other locations to treatment facilities. The difference between a CASEVAC (casualty
evacuation) and a MEDEVAC is that a MEDEVAC uses a standardized and dedicated
vehicle providing en route care. On the other hand, a CASEVAC uses non-standardized
and non-dedicated aircraft that may not provide enroute care. Military MEDEVAC
aircraft are mandated by the Geneva Convention to be unarmed and well marked.
Medium Helicopter- A helicopter with a certified gross weight between 6,000 pounds
(2,721 kg) and 12,500 pounds (5,669 kg). Under the ICS helicopter typing system, a
medium helicopter is a Type 2 helicopter; it must have an allowable payload at 59º F
(15º C) at sea level of 2,500 pounds (1,134 kg) and nine to 14 passenger seats (unless
it is in a restricted category).
Military Training Routes (MTR)- Designated aerial corridors in which military aircraft
can operate below 10,000 feet faster than the maximum safe speed of 250 knots that
all other aircraft are restricted to while operating below 10,000 feet. The routes provide
for high-speed, low-level military activities.
Military Operations Areas (MOA)- A military operations area (MOA) is airspace

designated outside of Class A airspace, to separate or segregate certain nonhazardous
military activities from IFR traffic and to identify for VFR traffic where these activities are
conducted. MOA's do not restrict VFR operations, however pilots operating under VFR
should exercise extreme caution while flying within, near, or below an active MOA.
Additionally, prior to entering an active MOA, pilots should contact the controlling
agency for traffic advisories due to the frequently changing status of these areas.
Notice to Airmen (NOTAM)- A notice typically transmitted by an aviation authority

(FAA) to alert aircraft pilots of potential hazards along a flight route or at a location that
could affect the safety of the flight.
One-Skid Landing- The maneuver of placing one skid of the helicopter on the ground,
while the other remains above the ground, typically performed in steep terrain. When
the skid is in contact with the ground, it serves as a pivot point and the CG can shift
laterally.
Operational Risk Management (ORM)- A cyclic process of risk assessment, risk

decision-making, and implementation of risk controls, which results in acceptance,
mitigation, or avoidance of risk.
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Operational Control (OPCON)- The authority to perform functions of command over

subordinate forces involving organizing and employing commands and forces,
assigning tasks, designating objectives, and giving authoritative direction necessary to
accomplish the mission.
Pararescue, aka Pararescue Jumpers (PJ’s)- United States Air Force Special
Operations Command (AFSOC) and Air Combat Command (ACC) personnel tasked
with recovery and medical treatment of personnel, commonly by helicopter or parachute
operations, in humanitarian and combat environments.
PAX- military slang: passengers.
Payload- The weight of the passengers and cargo.
Pilot in Command (PIC)- The person who (1) has final authority and responsibility for
the operation and safety of the flight; (2) has been designated as pilot in command
before or during the flight; and (3) holds the appropriate category, class, and type
rating, if appropriate, for the conduct of the flight.
Pilot Flying (PF)- Designated pilot who takes direct responsibility for flying the aircraft
for the complete flight or for particular parts of it such as the Descent/Approach and
Landing. The other pilot is then designated for that sector or relevant parts of it as 'Pilot
Not Flying' (PNF) or 'Pilot Monitoring' (PM), and in that role must monitor the flight
management and aircraft control actions of the PF and carry out support duties such as
communications and check-list reading.
Power-On Landing- A landing maneuver in which both skids are in full contact with the
ground while full power is maintained; this maneuver is performed to maintain the
position of the aircraft on a marginal touchdown pad.
Precautionary Landing- A landing conducted by the pilot because of an apparent

failure of the helicopter flight systems, which would make continued flight unsafe.
Public Aircraft- A government-owned, leased, or hired aircraft that is performing work

“exclusively in the service” of any federal, state, or local government agency.
Recon- slang: reconnaissance
Rescue Coordination Center (RCC)- A primary search and rescue facility staffed by
supervisory personnel and equipped for coordinating and controlling search and rescue
operations. Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs) in the United States are operated by
the United States Coast Guard and the U.S. Air Force. RCC's are responsible for a
geographic area, known as a "search and rescue region of responsibility" (SRR). SRR's
are designated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
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RF- slang: radio frequency
Safety Circle- An obstruction-free area on all sides of the helicopter touchdown pad
that allows a safe approach to and departure from the touchdown pad.
SATCOM- slang: satellite communication. Geosynchronous communications satellites

that provide television, voice, and data transmissions.
Short-haul- The transport of one or more people externally suspended on a line below
a helicopter. Includes the use of a helicopter and an externally attached line to insert or
extract personnel in areas that preclude a normal landing.
Situational Awareness (SA)- The ability of an individual to know what is going on

around himself or herself at all times. Situational awareness is maintained by obtaining
updated information about the external environment and about all operational
conditions in order to form an accurate mental image of a mission. During emergency
operations, responders’ ability to maintain situational awareness is diminished by
stress, poor communications, and overtasking.
Sling Load- An external load supported by a sling, net, bag, or some combination of
these that is attached with a long-line to the helicopter by means of a cargo hook.
Sortie- One aircraft takeoff and landing to conduct a mission.
Step-Out Landing- A landing used for dropping off or picking up passengers and cargo
(other than the rappel/short-haul method) while the helicopter is held in a hover. The
helicopter is not in contact with the ground, and the center of gravity can shift laterally
and longitudinally.
Supplemental Type Certificate (STC)- The airworthiness approval required by the

FAA (FAR* – 14 CFR Chapter 1 Part 21.113) when a design modification involves a
change in materials, parts, and appliances on the aircraft. Rescue equipment, which is
attached to a helicopter, is affected by the scope of this requirement.
Technical Standard Order (TSO)- A minimum performance standard approval issued

by the FAA for specified materials, parts, processes, and appliances used on civil
aircraft.
Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR)- Airspace restriction to flight imposed in order to: .
1. Protect persons and property from an existing or imminent flight associated hazard
2. Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft
3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft above an incident
4. Protect the President, Vice President, or other public figures
5. Provide a safe environment for space agency operations
TFRs are, by definition, “temporary” in nature, and pilots are expected to check
appropriate NOTAMs during flight planning when conducting flight in an area where a
temporary flight restriction is in effect.
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Touchdown Pad- A designated area, which may have a prepared or improved surface,
where the helicopter skids are placed.
Toe-In Landing- A landing maneuver in which the helicopter rests on the toes of the
skids; toe-in landings are used to drop off or pick up passengers or cargo. To execute
the maneuver, a significant amount of hover power (within 15% of hover power) must
be held to keep the helicopter from falling backward. When the helicopter is operated in
this manner, the potential exists for a significant lateral and longitudinal shift in the CG
shift during loading and offloading. In addition, when the helicopter is balanced on the
forward one third or less of the skid tube, main rotor blade clearance is another
significant concern.
Torque- A twisting force that causes a counter-rotating motion. In a helicopter with a

main rotor that rotates counterclockwise, the fuselage rotates clockwise. The tail rotor
produces anti-torque to counteract this force. The maximum continuous upper torque
limit is 100%; however, a transient over-torque may be tolerable to the helicopter power
plant.
Translational Lift- The additional lift generated as the helicopter transitions from a
hover to horizontal flight. Translational lift is due to the increased efficiency of the rotor
system as it generates more lift in forward flight with a higher inflow velocity of air mass
comparison with a hover.
Ultra High Frequency (UHF)- The spectrum of radio frequencies in the 300 MHz to 3
GHz (3,000 MHz).
Useful Load-The difference between the gross weight and the basic empty weight is
referred to as useful load. It includes the flight crew, usable fuel, drainable oil, if
applicable, and payload.
Vertical Reference- A technique used by the helicopter pilot and flight crew, while
operating above the ground, to determine the height of the aircraft and any associated
external load through visual clues. Surface landmarks and references are used during
approaches, departures, and external-load positioning maneuvers at landing or work
areas.
Very High Frequency (VHF)- The spectrum of radio frequencies in the 30 MHz to 300
MHz range. This contains aeronautical frequencies and land mobile radio spectrum.
VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range (VOR)- An aircraft navigation system operating in

the VHF band. VORs broadcast a VHF radio composite signal including the station's
Morse Code identifier (and sometimes a voice identifier), and data that allows the
airborne receiving equipment to derive the magnetic bearing from the station to the
aircraft. This line of position is called the "radial".
Vis- slang: visibility.
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Visual Flight Rules (VFR)- The rules for conducting flight operations under visual
meteorological conditions (VMC). Depending upon the class of airspace, aircraft flying
under VFR are not required to be in contact with air traffic controllers and are
responsible for their own separation from other aircraft. The term also is used in the
United States to indicate weather conditions that meet or exceed minimum VFR
requirements.
Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC)- The meteorological conditions expressed in

terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceiling equal to or better than specified
minima. U.S. Class C and D airspace: 3 statute miles visibility, 2000 ft. horizontally from
clouds, 1000 ft. above and 500 ft. below clouds.
Weight and Balance- Airframe calculations based upon the amount of cyclic control
power available, which establish both the longitudinal and lateral CG envelopes of a
helicopter so that it is loaded in a manner so there is sufficient cyclic control for all flight
conditions.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A- Checklist For Precision In Emergency Response Safety
This job aid has been developed to promote effective decision making and risk
management during emergency operations. It highlights numerous operational red
flags. Use of this tool should not delay your decision making; rather it should be
consulted as a reference on a recurring basis. Review these principles in advance.
5M Model of Systematic Risk Management: mission, method, management, man, and

medium.
MISSION (Incident Assignment)

• Have you obtained all available initial mission information?
• Are your mission image and plan accurate?
• What is the operational tempo?
o Be vigilant for “go fever” in personnel.
o Watch out for personnel running or shouting.
o Don’t allow the level of urgency to drive the mission.
• Is a response appropriate at this time?
o Calculate the accurate urgency of the situation.
METHOD (Techniques and Means of Conducting the Mission)

• Is the level of response appropriate?
o Overresponding is reckless and exposes management to liability.
o Underresponding is inexcusable and exposes management to liability.
• Have you selected the appropriate technique for the task?
• Are the correct initial actions being implemented immediately?
• Have alternative techniques been adequately evaluated?
o Consider the time, hazards, personnel exposure, and overall efficiency
involved for alternatives.
• Are operations within equipment performance capabilities?
• Are adequate systems of communication in place?
o Actively prevent the loss of incident communications.
o Use relays, cellular, satellite phone, or an adjacent agency frequency.
o Use brevity, radio etiquette, clear text, and dedicated frequencies.
• Has a thorough briefing of the mission been provided for all involved personnel?
o In-person briefings are the most effective.
o Give clear instructions and make sure there is no misunderstanding.
• Can you identify any omissions or deficiencies in the plan?
• Are you staying ahead of the “power curve”?
o Anticipate and take action to prevent possible delays in the mission.
o Ensure sufficient timeliness of logistical support.
• Are any apparent shortcuts being taken by involved personnel?
• Is there disagreement over the correct technique to be used?
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o Solidly review the conservative method/approach/technique.

• Are the dynamics of the mission being observed?
o Reevaluate and update your mission image.
• Are you making false assumptions?
o Gather and consider all the field intelligence you can.
• Have you considered outside resources?
• Have you accounted for failure of the plan?
o Have a backup plan available and be prepared to initiate it.
MANAGEMENT (Controls, Procedures, Oversight, and Supervision)

• Has “command” been identified to all involved personnel?
• Is an adequate incident command system (ICS) organization in place?
• Is compliance with policy and operating procedures being shown?
• Is safety being openly promoted?
• Are established policies and procedures known by involved personnel?
• Are adequate oversight and supervision in place?
• Has staging of additional resources been identified, and is it in use?
• Is a personnel accountability system in place?
• Have plans been made for rest and rehabilitation of involved personnel?
o Fatigue, stress, and dehydration profoundly affect performance.
o Rotate rested personnel.
o Provide for critical incident stress management (CISM) support.
• Is a hot debrief and/or mission review planned?
o Actively seek out and implement mission feedback.
MAN (Generic Reference to Incident Personnel)

• Are personnel being overtasked?
o Increase the number of personnel and delegate tasks.
o Encourage personnel to request assistance.
• Is an adequate number of trained personnel being deployed?
o Make sure rescuers’ qualifications are current.
o Select personnel on the basis of skills and proficiency.
• Has the personal preparedness of all personnel been assessed?
o Mental preparedness
o Physical preparedness
o Personal survival equipment (is the person prepared to remain overnight?)
o Personal protective equipment (PPE)
• Is situational awareness being maintained?
• Constantly revise the mental image of the mission and incident conditions.
MEDIUM (Environmental Forces)

• Have all environmental hazards been openly identified?
• Are mitigation efforts being used where possible?
• Has an accurate weather forecast been obtained?
• Is the mission operating within safe environmental parameters for personnel and
machines?
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Appendix B- Communications
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Phonetic Alphabet

A- Alpha M- Mike Y- Yankee
B- Bravo N- November Z- Zulu
C- Charlie O- Oscar 1- Wun
D- Delta P- Papa 2- Too
E- Echo Q- Quebec 3- Tree
F- Foxtrot R- Romeo 4- Fow-er
G- Golf S- Sierra 5- Fife
H- Hotel T- Tango 6- Six
I- India U- Uniform 7- Seven
J- Juliet V- Victor 8- Ait
K- Kilo W- Whiskey 9- Nin-er
L- Lima X- X-Ray 0- Ze-ro
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SEARCH AND RESCUE FREQUENCIES

The following frequencies are the internationally recognized SAR frequencies.
Distress/Emergency Frequencies
406.0 MHz- International voice aeronautical and shipboard emergency (UHF).*
243.0 MHz- Joint/combined military aeronautical emergency (UHF).
123.1 MHz- NATO/ICAO Scene of Action (SAR)
121.5 MHz- International aeronautical emergency distress frequency (VHF)
156.8 MHz- International Maritime Distress (Channel 16)- FM voice distress (VHF)
40.50 MHz- VHF-FM Emergency (U.S. Army FM distress)
8364 kHz- International SAR lifeboat, life raft, and survival craft
2182 kHz- Maritime Mobile Distress
2670 kHz- USCG Emergency Coordination
500 kHz- International Distress
*Emergency ELT, EPIRB, and Personal Location beacon (PLB) distress frequency
Commonly Used On-Scene SAR Frequencies

2670 kHz- Coast Guard HF working frequency
3024.4 kHz- International voice SAR on scene (3023)
5680 kHz- International voice SAR on scene
123.1 MHz- International voice SAR on-scene PRIMARY.
138.78 MHz- U.S. military voice SAR on scene and direction finder (DF)
155.16 MHz- FM frequency used by some states for coordinating SAR operations
157.1 MHz- Coast Guard VHF-FM working frequency (CH 22A)
282.8 MHz- Joint/combined on scene and DF (UHF)
243.0 MHz- Motor whaleboat/rescue helicopter communications
381.8 MHz- Coast Guard Command net (working frequency between USCG aircraft,
cutters, etc.).
Source: Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1. April 2009 edition.
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Appendix C- Helicopter Hoist Rescue Checklists
U.S. AIR FORCE
HH-60 HOIST OPERATOR PRE-MISSION CHECKLIST
1. Gunners Belt – On -Inform pilot when duties require being out of

seat with cabin doors/windows open (gunner’s belt worn).
2. Intercom System – Set.
3. Gloves – On
4. Door – Open. (ensure all equipment is secure prior)
5. Rescue Hoist Power Switch – On.
6. Ensure Backup Pump On Advisory Light Is On.
7. Shear Arm Switch (CCB) – Press (Armed Light On).
8. Rescue Device – As Required.
9. Lock Pin – As Required.
10. Searchlight – As Required.
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U.S. PARK POLICE- HOIST RESCUE CHECK LIST
PART ONE
1. Secure Cabin - Ensure interior of cabin is secure and ready for

hoist operation. All gear should be tied down and equipment
configured to allow hoisting of rescue device.
2. Nightsun Control Box - Position next to cabin door for easy access during hoist
operations.
3. Safety Harness - Ensure safety harness is secured to hard point. Adjust belt to fit
comfortably - adjust length of tether. Ensure proper donning of PFD to include leg
straps (if applicable).
4. Helmet Visor - Visors should be down whenever cabin door is open. (For night
operations, if a clear helmet visor is not available, use safety glasses).
5. ICS Cord - Ensure ICS cord is available. Additionally, the other right side ICS box
should be strapped to the overhead and available for use in the event of failure.
6. Rescue Device/Swimmer - The device or swimmer should be ready to be attached

to the hoist or for free fall deployment.
7. Cable Cutters - Cutters should be in close proximity and secured with a lanyard to
prevent dropping from aircraft if employed.
8. Hoist Gloves - Donned prior to arrival
At the completion, crewmember announces "Rescue Checklist Part One complete".
PART TWO
Rescue Checklist Part Two should be completed immediately preceding an actual hoist.
These are the final steps taken in order to perform a hoist.
1. Request Hoist Power/Enable Cable Cutter - Pilot will turn hoist on and reset
cable cutter circuit breaker.
2. Rig the rescue device or rescuer to the hoist
3. Audio Check - Check hot mike and all receiver volumes and settings to avoid
interference during hoist.
4. Report - "Rescue Checklist Part Two complete- one rigged and ready aft."
Following this last advisory, the Pilot will begin his/her approach to the target.
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CALIFORNIA HIGHWAY PATROL
RESCUE HOIST OPERATIONS CHECKLIST

1. Crewmembers qualified and current.
2. OAO (owned and operated) authorized equipment only.
3. Supervisor should be notified, if possible.
4. No night operations.
5. HOGE power available and computed.
6. Weight and balance within limits:

• Longitudinal.
• Lateral.
• Gross weight.
7. Rescue hoist properly installed, pre-flighted and operationally checked:

• Check for general condition, proper safeties and serviceability.
• Check operation of unit.
• Preflight cable cutter device.
• Check cargo mirror installation and adjustment, if applicable.
8. Preflight mission equipment/rigging. Double check flight officer’s safety

harness and its attachment points/connections.
9. Crew/mission briefing completed:

• Mission procedures.
• Communications procedures:
 Radio.
o Frequencies.
o Call signs.
o Lost communications procedures.
o Terminology, etc.
 Hand signals.
10. Emergency procedures briefed:

• Cable cut procedures.
 Cut non-live loads.
 Flight officer lowers live load to the ground.
• Static electricity brief:
 Key CHP radio.
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 Ground line/cable prior to touching.

• Entangled cable: Caution tension!
• Pendulum action:
 Move cable opposite of swing.
 If rotating, rotate cable opposite of rotation.
11. Staging area selection/preparation:

• Size.
• Approach/departure paths.
• Wind.
• Weather.
• Dust/snow/debris.
• Density altitude.
• Visibility (low sun).
• obstructions/terrain/hazards/barriers/wires.
• No unnecessary personnel in the area.
12. Non-live loads: cable cutter device armed.
13. Live loads.

• Circuit breaker pulled/disarmed. (not fuses).
• If outside, keep victim(s) at a low altitude
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TRAVIS COUNTY STARFLIGHT- CREW CHIEF HOIST CHECKLIST
Crew Chief
The Crew Chief will ensure that the aircraft is properly configured for SAR missions to
include confirming the rappel bar is securely attached to the aircraft, and that the “load
release handle” is locked and safety pinned in position
Crew Chief will perform a safety inspection of all crewmembers ensuring proper PPE for
the mission
Crew Chief will begin radio communication with ground units
Crew Chief will complete pre-rescue safety inspection of the Helicopter Rescue
Specialist (HRS)
CABIN SECURED
Prior to calling cabin secure the Crew Chief will ensure that the HRS and all equipment
are properly secured
DOOR OPEN AND LOCKED

The Crew Chief will move into position for rescue operations at the front of the right
sliding door
REQUEST HOIST POWER
LIGHT CHECK OK
Crew Chief will deploy hoist cable to the HRS

CREW CHIEF RADIO TEST
RESCUER READY
Crew Chief will boom HRS into ready position but will not lower HRS until Pilot gives the
command
RESCUER IN POSITION
HOIST RUNNING
Crew Chief will provide Pilot with progress of HRS on hoist (e.g. HRS at 15 feet, 30 feet
etc.)
CONFIRMING AIRSPEED/ ALTITUDE

Crew Chief will confirm proper position, altitude, speed
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CHECKED
Crew Chief will then begin to give Pilot corrective commands to the target LZ
DECISION CHECKED
Crew Chief will make final movement commands as the HRS nears the ground
FORWARD 10, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1..STOP FORWARD, HOLD POSITION
RESCUER ON GROUND
RESCUER DISCONNECTING
HOOK FREE
HOIST RUNNING
AXIS CLEAR
Crew Chief will provide commentary on progress of the hoist hook as it is retrieved and
call clear when the hook can be retrieved without striking any obstacles
DECISION CHECKED
HOOK STOWED- BOOM IN
REQUEST HOIST POWER OFF
PENDANT IS OFF AND STOWED
DOOR CLOSED/ CABIN SECURE
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SAN DIEGO FIRE-RESCUE- AIR OPERATIONS DIVISION
Hoist Operators Checklist
1. Operations briefing completed

2. Hoist operator attached and secure
3. All passengers attached and secure
4. (PFD) Donned- N/A
5. All equipment attached and secure
6. No loose items in the cabin
7. Ensure necessary power
8. Ensure escape route identified
9. Radio communication plan identified
10. Both doors open and secure
11. Power to the hoist
12. I have a green light
13. Right side clear, tail is clear
14. Clear to lift
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Appendix D- Airspace
AIRSPACE CLASSES
The National Airspace System (NAS) is divided into several standardized types, ranging
from A through G — with A being the most restrictive and G the least restrictive.
Figure 64- Airspace profile. Image courtesy FAA.
• Class A: High altitude controlled airspace at 18,000-60,000 feet. All aircraft are
subject to ATC clearance. All flights are separated from each other by air traffic
control (ATC).
• Class B: Surface to typically 10,000 feet around major airports to control traffic flow.
All aircraft are subject to ATC clearance.
• Class C: Used around airports with a moderate traffic flow. All aircraft are required
to have two-way radio communications with the ATC facility serving the airport.
• Class D: Used around smaller airports with a tower. All flights have radio contact
with ATC.
• Class E: Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. Aircraft operating
under IFR and SVFR are separated from each other, and are subject to ATC
clearance. Flights under VFR are not subject to ATC clearance. As far as is
practical, traffic information is given to all flights in respect of VFR flights.
• Class G: Uncontrolled airspace found near the ground and outside of controlled
airspace regions typically in remote areas. Operations may be conducted under IFR
or VFR. ATC separation is not provided.
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE

Special Use Airspace (SUA) designation was initiated in the early 1970’s after a series
of collisions and near-collisions between military and general aviation. The details of a
particular SUA are listed on the applicable aeronautical sectional chart. There are six
different kinds of SUA in the United States;
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1. PA—Prohibited Areas
2. RA— Restricted Areas
3. MOA—Military Operations Areas
4. AA —Alert Areas
5. WA —Warning Areas
6. CFA —Controlled Firing Areas
Prohibited Areas
A great description of a Prohibited Area (PA) is “unless you have the President flying in
the right seat with you, don’t attempt to fly through a prohibited area”. According to the
Airman’s Information Manual they are established for “security or other reasons
associated with the national welfare”. PAs keep aircraft from flying over the White
House and other parts of Washington, DC, ex-president’s homes. One interesting PA is
the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in Minnesota. PAs are published in the Federal
Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts.
Restricted Areas
A Restricted Area (RA) is designated when it is necessary to confine or segregate
activities considered hazardous to non-participating aircraft. They may contain hazards
to flying such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. You do not want to fly
in restricted areas without permission from the using or controlling agency. Such flying
could be hazardous to you and your aircraft’s health and well-being. If you find yourself
requested to fly within restricted areas, make sure you have permission and clearance
prior to entry. RAs are depicted on the En Route Chart and aeronautical charts.
Military Operations Areas

Military Operations Areas (MOA) were established to contain certain military activities
such as air combat maneuvers, intercepts, acrobatics, etc. There are many MOAs over
resource areas in the United States. It will not be uncommon to find yourself flying
within one. Civilian flights within MOA are not prohibited (even when the area is “HOT”
but you may encounter high-speed flight training, acrobatic or abrupt flight maneuvers
(under 250 KIA’s). Altitudes for MOA’s will vary, but they run from ground surface to
18,000 feet. The status of MOA’s can change frequently. You should contact the Flight
Service Station (FSS) within 100 miles of the area to obtain information concerning the
MOAs hours of operation. FSS will only provide information on MOAs WHEN
SPECIFICALLY REQUESTED. Exercise extreme caution when flying within a MOA.
Also, have your lights on for better visibility. MOAs are depicted on Sectional, VFR
Terminal, Area and Low Altitude En Route Charts.
Alert Areas
An Alert Areas (AA) may contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of
aerial activity. A high volume of activity is considered as 250,000 operations a year
(such as the Gulf Coast off shore operations). It is an airspace where you should be
particularly “alert” when flying. All activities are conducted in accordance with FAR’s. It
might be an area for military activity, aircraft manufacturers or a high concentration of
aviation activity, i.e. helicopters operating near oil rigs. AAs are depicted on
aeronautical charts.
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Warning Areas
A Warning Area (WA) could contain the same kind of hazardous flight activity as a RA,
however, they are located over international waters. This means artillery firing, aerial
gunnery, or guided missiles. The reason it is called a WA (instead of a RA) is because it
is located over International waters. Until recently, International waters started at three
miles from the U.S. coastline. However, the FAA recently extended airspace authority to
12 miles and made ALL AIRSPACE between three and 12 miles a WA. You can fly
VFR through a WA and chance it. If you choose to fly IFR, ATC will not permit it unless
separation is guaranteed. WAs are depicted on aeronautical charts.
Controlled Firing Areas

The most unusual aspect of CFAs are they are not charted anywhere! It is not on your
sectional. It is an airspace that contains activities (such as artillery firing) that, if not
contained, could be hazardous to “non-participating” aircraft. The distinguishing feature
of a CFA is that it utilizes a spotter or ground lookout positions that indicate when an
aircraft might be approaching the area. All activities are then suspended. The FAA does
not chart the CFA’s because they don’t require a non-participating aircraft to change it’s
flight path. CFAs must have 5 miles visibility or radar. A safety officer is in contact with
an observer. Activities include EOD, artillery, small arms, static rocket tests and
chemical disposals. CFAs are the only category of SUA that is uncharted.
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Appendix E- Military Rescue Helicopters
Note: This list provides a reference to the principal rescue helicopters operated by the
Department of Defense and Department of Homeland Security. This is not a list of all
operational rescue helicopters in the U.S.
Sikorsky HH-60J (Jayhawk)

Operator: DHS- U.S. Coast Guard
Crew: Four (pilot, co-pilot, two flight crew)
Passenger Capacity: 6
Length: 64 ft. 10 in (19.76 m)
Rotor diameter: 53 ft. 8 in (16.36 m)
Height: 17 ft. (5.18 m)
Empty weight: 14,500 lb. (6,580 kg)
Max. takeoff weight: 21,884 lb. (9,926 kg)
Performance
• Cruise speed: 140 kt (160 mph, 260 km/h)
• Range: 700 nautical miles (802 mi, 1,300 km)
• Service ceiling: 5,000 ft. hovering (1,520 m)
Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk

Operator: U.S. Army and DHS-
CBP
Crew: 2 pilots (flight crew) with 2
crew chiefs/gunners
Capacity: 2,640 lb. (1,200 kg) of
cargo internally, including 11
troops or 6 stretchers, or 8,000 lb.
(3,600 kg) (UH-60A) or 9,000 lb.
(4,100 kg) (UH-60L) of cargo externally
Length: 64 ft. 10 in (19.76 m)
Fuselage width: 7 ft. 9 in (2.36 m)
Height: 16 ft. 10 in (5.13 m)
Disc area: 2,260 ft² (210 m²)
Loaded weight: 22,000 lb. (9,980 kg)
Performance
• Combat radius: 368 mi (320 nmi, 592 km)
• Ferry range: 1,380 mi (1,200 nmi, 2,220 km) with external tanks
• Service ceiling: 19,000 ft. (5,790 m)
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Sikorsky HH-60 Pave Hawk

Operator: U.S. Air Force
Crew: 4 (2 pilots, flight engineer, gunner)
Capacity: max. crew 6, 8–12 troops, plus litters and/or other cargo
Length: 64 ft. 10 in (17.1 m)
Height: 16 ft. 8 in (5.1 m)
Performance
Maximum speed: 195 knots (224 mph, 360 km/h)
Cruise speed: 159 kt (184 mph, 294 km/h)
Range: 373 mi (internal fuel), or 508 mi (with external tanks) (600 km, or 818 km)
Service ceiling: 14,000 ft. (4,267 m)
Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk

Operator: U.S. Navy
Crew: 3–4
Capacity: 5 passengers in cabin, slung
load of 6,000 lb. (2,700 kg) or internal
load of 4,100 lb. (1,900 kg) for B, F and H
models; and 11 passengers or slung load of 9,000 lb. (4,100 kg) for S-model
Length: 64 ft. 8 in (19.75 m)
Height: 17 ft. 2 in (5.2 m)
Disc area: 2,262 ft² (210 m²)
Useful load: 6,684 lb. (3,031 kg)
Performance
• Maximum speed: 146 kt (270 km/h; 168 mph)
• Range: 450 nmi (518 mi or 834 km) at cruise speed
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Boening CH-47 Chinook

Operator: U.S. Army
Crew: 3 (pilot, copilot, flight
engineer)
Capacity: 33–55 troops or 24 litters
and 3 attendants or 28,000 lb.
(12,700 kg) cargo
Length: 98 ft. 10 in (30.1 m)
Height: 18 ft. 11 in (5.7 m)
Disc area: 5,600 ft2 (520 m2)
Powerplant: 2 × Lycoming T55-GA-714A turboshaft, 4,733 hp (3,631 kW) each
Performance
• Range: 400 nmi (450 mi, 741 km)
Eurocopter UH-72 Lakota

Operator: U.S.Army and Army National Guard
Crew: 2 pilots
Capacity: 8 troops or 2 stretchers and medical crew
Length: 42 ft. 7 in (13.03 m)
Height: 11 ft. 9 in (3.45 m)
Disc area: 1,023 ft² (94.98 m²)
Useful load: 3,953 lb. (1,793 kg)
Performance
• Cruise speed: 133 knots (153 mph, 246 km/h)
• Range: 370 nmi (426 mi, 685 km)
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Eurocopter HH-65 Dauphin

Operator: DHS- U.S. Coast Guard
Crew: 2 pilots and 2 crew
Length: 11.6 m (38 ft. 1 in)
Height: 4 m (13 ft. 1 in)
Empty weight: 3,128 kg (6,896 lb.)
Max takeoff weight: 4,300 kg (9,480 lb.)
Powerplant: 2 × Turbomeca Arriel 2C2-CG turboshaft engines, 636 kW (853 hp) each
Main rotor diameter: 11.9 m (39 ft. 1 in)
Main rotor area: 38.54 m2 (414.8 sq. ft.)
Performance
• Maximum speed: 324 km/h; 201 mph (175 kt.)
• Range: 658 km (409 mi; 355 nmi)
• Service ceiling: 5,486 m (17,999 ft.)
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Appendix F- U.S. Air Force Helicopter Landing Zone (HLZ)

Requirements
Source: AIR FORCE INSTRUCTION 13-217 (10-27-2007)- DROP ZONE
AND LANDING ZONE OPERATIONS
A minimum of two rotor diameters is required for single-ship training. Use the following
square dimensions to determine single-ship HLZs: MH-53 = 150 ft. (72 ft. rotor
diameter); UH-1 = 100 ft. (48 ft. rotor diameter); CV-22=170 ft. (85 ft. rotor diameter);
HH-60 = 110 ft. (54 ft. rotor diameter).
For multi-ship operations, multiply single-ship dimensions by the number of aircraft to

determine HLZ capacity (e.g., a 4-ship of MH-53s would require a 600 ft. x 150 ft. long
HLZ).
For contingency operations use the following dimensions to determine single-ship

HLZs: MH-53 use 125 ft. W x 140 ft. L; CV-22 use 135 ft. W x 110 ft. L; HH-60 use 105
ft. W x 115 ft. L. UH-1 use 25-ft. clearance from any portion of the helicopter to the
nearest obstacle. For multi-ship operations, multiply the number of aircraft by 150 ft. W
x 150 ft. L (e.g., a 4-ship of MH-53’s would require a 600 ft. W x 150 ft. L HLZ).
HH-60 slope limits: 6 degrees nose-down, 15 degrees nose-up, 15 degrees left/ right.
Aircrew will subtract 2 degrees from each limit for each 5 knots of wind
HH-60 Helicopter Landing Zone Size

• Operational Weight (Empty) - 14,600 lbs.
• Max. Gross Weight - 24,500 lbs.
• Rotor Size - 54 ft.'
• Length - 65 ft.
• Footprint Width - 8 ft.
• Footprint Length – 40 ft.
• Minimum HLZ Size Training - 25 ft.
clearance from any portion of the
helicopter to e nearest obstacle.
• Contingency - 25 ft. clearance from any
portion of the helicopter to the nearest
obstacle.
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MH-47E Helicopter Landing Zone Size

• Operational Weight (Empty) - 32,000 lbs.
• Max. Gross Weight - 50,000 lbs.
• Rotor Size – 60 ft.
• Length - 99 ft.
• Footprint Width - 9 ft.
• Footprint Length – 30 ft.
• Minimum HLZ Size Training – 120 ft. X
120 ft.
• Contingency – 110 ft. W X 140 ft. L
Illustrations by Ken Phillips
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Appendix G- JFIRE Manual- Helicopter Landing Zone

(HLZ) Brief
Source: Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force JFIRE (Multi-
Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for the Joint
Application of Firepower). Appendix H. November 2012
Zone Location
• Geographical feature, checkpoint, grid, road intersection, etc.
Marked by
• Air panel, buzzsaw (spinning chemlight on cord), chemical lights, infrared strobes,
smoke, talk-on, etc.
Obstacles
• Power lines, trees, etc.
• Include height of obstacle
Winds are from_____________

• Tell aircraft from which sub-cardinal heading winds are blowing.
• Include the estimated speed in knots or estimated strength, such as strong or light.
Note: Aircraft should always land into the wind.
112 | P a g e

Helicopter Rescue Techniques - NSARA Manual

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HELICOPTER RESCUE

National SAR Academy Training Manual

Before launching a helicopter for a rescue or requesting the assistance of an outside

When to Use a Helicopter

MILITARY SUPPORT TO CIVIL SEARCH AND RESCUE

resources, private and volunteer resources, and resources

The Air Force Rescue Coordination Center (AFRCC), located at

AFRCC MISSION GO/NO GO CRITERIA.

A request for a military helicopter rescue

CASEVAC and MEDEVAC

routinely used interchangeably to refer to both medical evacuations and casualty

9 Line MEDEVAC Request Format

Weather and Nighttime Limitations

Additionally, an exception applies to helicopters in “uncontrolled” airspace (Class G)

Helicopter Night Rescue Operations

91.155). Furthermore, the FAA

The limitations of the human eye

being able to detect any light

Night vision devices were initially

Preplanning and Mission Planning

Box 1. HELICOPTER RESCUE- OPERATIONAL RED FLAGS

Box 2. Twelve Standard Aviation Questions

Rescue helicopter resources are typically categorized as public safety aircraft,

Table 1- Helicopter Resource Typing

Sikorsky HH-60G Pave Eurocopter AS350 B3.

Passenger Seats 15+ 9-14 4-8

Risk Management Process

Figure 6- Risk Management Process.

U.S. Coast Guard and Operational Risk Management

1. Accept No Unnecessary Risk: SAR operations entail risk. Unnecessary risk

GAR Risk Assessment Model

GAR respondents independently assign a personal risk score to eight different

The following elements are evaluated in the GAR Model:

• SUPERVISION- The presence of qualified, accessible, and effective supervision on

• PLANNING- Adequate incident information is available and clear. There is sufficient

• CONTINGENCY RESOURCES- Backup resources available that can assist if

• COMMUNICATION- Evaluate how well personnel are briefed and communicating.

• TEAM SELECTION- Team selection should consider the qualifications and

• ENVIRONMENT- Consider factors affecting performance of personnel and

• INCIDENT COMPLEXITY- Evaluate the severity, exposure time, and probability of

GAR RISK ASSESSMENT SCORE

GREEN AMBER RED

Public Aircraft Regulations- FAA

Rotorcraft External Load Operations- Public Aircraft

If a private operator (non–public aircraft) were to consider conducting a short-haul

Crew Resource Management

management. A team employing effective CRM utilizes open communications,

Emergency responders must have reliable communication equipment and possess

Five Communication Responsibilities for All Personnel:15

Figure 7- Interagency Helicopter Hand Signals. Source;

Table 2. US Navy- Team and Helicopter Signals

Using Direct Statements

The following are the six components of direct statements:

Box 3. EMERGENCY BRIEFING FORMAT

1. Here’s what I think we face

Failure to manage concurrent tasks effectively occurs through; 18

Distractions from a primary task can occur through;

Table 3. Landing Zones Specifications

Factors that must be considered

Additional landing zone considerations:

DoD Landing Zone (LZ) Radio Call- “STOPWWW”

Note: refer to Appendix F for DoD landing zone requirements.

Aircraft Weight and Balance