Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TECHNIQUES
Civilian Public Safety and Military Helicopter Rescue Operations
This training manual has been prepared by the United States Department of the Interior,
National Park Service for the National SAR Academy (NSARA).
As a publication of the federal government the text within this manual is not copyrighted under
the copyright laws of the United States, however this manual does contain copyrighted images
and illustrations. Such material is protected by United States Copyright Law and may not be
reproduced without the express permission of the owner.
Written by Ken Phillips, Branch Chief of Search and Rescue, National Park Service (NPS).
The author is extremely grateful for the technical assistance of numerous individuals within the
helicopter rescue community for their personal insight and suggestions. This includes; Cedric
Smith, Engineer with CMC Rescue and helicopter SAR technician with Santa Barbara County
SAR; Jim Frank, founder of CMC Rescue for his skill as an editor; Casey Ping, Program
Manager with Travis County Starflight; Greg Sanderson, Firefighter/Paramedic and Helitac
Standardization Coordinator with Los Angeles City Fire Department Air Operations; Diana
Byrne for her editing. Additional contributions were provided by U.S. Park Police Aviation Unit,
Yosemite SAR (YOSAR), Dean Ross, NPS Deputy Chief of Emergency Services, John Evans,
NPS Park Ranger, Michael Peitz, Interagency Aviation Officer (USMC ret), Will Smith MD, and
the staff of the USMC Mountain Warfare Training Center, California.
All images credited as noted. All copyrighted images reprinted with permission.
The use of commercial products and trade names is for illustrative and educational purposes
only and does not constitute an official endorsement by the National Park Service.
Cover photo: Helicopter short-haul rescue of an Austrian climber on the 3’000 foot El Capitan
Nose Route at Yosemite National Park (CA). During the third day of his ascent on September
26, 2011, the climber, who was 2,000 feet above the floor of Yosemite Valley, clipped an
etrier, a short ladder of sewn webbing, to a metal nut wedged in a rock crack. As he stood
with his weight on the etrier, the nut pulled loose and he sustained a fall, being caught by his
belay safety line. During the fall, the etrier became wrapped around his thumb, amputating the
digit. Yosemite Search and Rescue (YOSAR) personnel Dave Pope and Jeff Webb were
inserted to the scene, in order to extract the injured climber beneath Helicopter 551 (Bell
205A-1) helicopter being piloted by Richard Shatto with assistance from helicopter crew chief
Eric Small. NPS Photo by Dov Bock.
WARNING
Helicopter rescue involves unique hazards, which can be fatal. This manual
contains information on specialized rescue techniques, and is intended for use as
a part of a training course involving closely supervised field training with qualified
instructors. A person cannot become proficient in helicopter rescue by only
reading this manual. Every rescue situation is unique, requiring size-up and
decision-making skills gained through personal experience.
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 6
When to Use a Helicopter ......................................................................................................... 6
Weather and Nighttime Limitations ......................................................................................... 10
Night Rescue Operations by Helicopter ............................................................................... 10
Preplanning and Mission Planning .......................................................................................... 12
Risk Management Process ...................................................................................................... 15
U.S. Coast Guard and Operational Risk Management ........................................................ 16
GAR Risk Assessment Model .............................................................................................. 17
Public Aircraft Regulations- FAA ............................................................................................. 19
Public Aircraft ....................................................................................................................... 19
Rotorcraft External Load Operations- Public Aircraft ........................................................... 19
Mission Management .............................................................................................................. 20
Flight Following .................................................................................................................... 20
Crew Resource Management .............................................................................................. 20
Communications ...................................................................................................................... 21
Five Communication Responsibilities for All Personnel: ...................................................... 21
Hand Signals........................................................................................................................ 22
Using Direct Statements ...................................................................................................... 22
Briefing Personnel................................................................................................................ 24
Multi-Tasking........................................................................................................................ 24
Landing Zones ......................................................................................................................... 25
Rotor Wash .......................................................................................................................... 26
Hot Loading.......................................................................................................................... 27
Aircraft Weight and Balance .................................................................................................... 28
Load Calculation .................................................................................................................. 28
Helicopter Rescue Crew Configuration ................................................................................ 30
Helicopter Flight Characteristics and Limitations ..................................................................... 31
Helicopter Aerodynamics ..................................................................................................... 31
Ground Effect ....................................................................................................................... 32
Autorotation.......................................................................................................................... 32
Translational Lift................................................................................................................... 33
Density Altitude .................................................................................................................... 33
Hover Ceiling ....................................................................................................................... 33
Center of Gravity .................................................................................................................. 33
Helicopter Landings ................................................................................................................. 33
Slope Landings .................................................................................................................... 34
One-Skid Landings .............................................................................................................. 34
Toe-In Landings ................................................................................................................... 34
Hover Landings .................................................................................................................... 35
Power-On Landing ............................................................................................................... 35
Basic Helicopter Safety ........................................................................................................... 35
Preflight Briefing................................................................................................................... 35
Safety During Helicopter Operations.................................................................................... 35
Personnel Protective Equipment ............................................................................................. 36
Personal Preparedness ....................................................................................................... 39
In-Flight Emergency: Survival Plan Checklist....................................................................... 39
Emergency Water Ditching Survival Training....................................................................... 39
Patient Care and Transport Considerations ............................................................................ 40
Helicopter Rescue Techniques ................................................................................................ 42
Helicopter Hoist Rescue ...................................................................................................... 42
Hoist Cable Management ................................................................................................. 44
Hoist Cable Construction .................................................................................................. 45
Hoist Cable and Rescue Hook Assembly ......................................................................... 46
Possible Cable Damage ................................................................................................... 47
Static Discharge ............................................................................................................... 48
Line Entanglement ........................................................................................................... 49
Litter Transfer in Exposed Terrain .................................................................................... 54
Helicopter Rappel ................................................................................................................ 54
Helicopter Short-haul ........................................................................................................... 56
Short-haul Operational Hazards ....................................................................................... 60
Litter Transfer in Exposed Terrain (similar to hoist procedures) ....................................... 61
Short-haul Emergency Procedures .................................................................................. 62
Rescuer Head-to-toe Safety Checklist (HEC Techniques) ............................................... 64
Helicopter Short-Haul Checklist (Pre-Mission) ................................................................. 64
Helicopter Rescue Appliances ................................................................................................. 65
Helicopter Rescue Bags ...................................................................................................... 65
Collapsible Rescue Basket .................................................................................................. 66
Rescue Net (Billy Pugh Net) ................................................................................................ 66
Medevac Litter ..................................................................................................................... 68
Rescue Seat or Forest Penetrator (Jungle Penetrator)........................................................ 68
Tag Line/Trail Line ............................................................................................................... 70
Additional Personnel Lifting Devices .................................................................................... 70
Rescue Strop.................................................................................................................... 70
Quick Strop....................................................................................................................... 71
Rescue Evacuation Triangle (Petzl Pitagor) ..................................................................... 72
Screamer Suit................................................................................................................... 72
Hoisting Vest .................................................................................................................... 73
Post Incident Considerations ................................................................................................... 73
Helicopter Rescue Training Considerations ............................................................................ 75
Summary ................................................................................................................................. 75
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 77
References .............................................................................................................................. 81
Glossary .................................................................................................................................. 82
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 92
Appendix A- Checklist For Precision In Emergency Response Safety ................................ 92
Appendix B- Communications .............................................................................................. 94
Appendix C- Helicopter Hoist Rescue Checklists................................................................. 96
California Highway Patrol ..................................................................................................... 98
Appendix D- Airspace ........................................................................................................ 103
Appendix E- Military Rescue Helicopters ........................................................................... 106
Appendix F- U.S. Air Force Helicopter Landing Zone (HLZ) Requirements ...................... 110
Appendix G- JFIRE Manual- Helicopter Landing Zone (HLZ) Brief .................................... 112
Helicopter Rescue Techniques
National SAR Academy
Introduction
Helicopters provide an outstanding rescue tool, but they have specific operating
limitations. Recognize that the consequences of a poorly managed helicopter rescue
can be swift and fatal. Rescuers need to understand these limits and have the
professional discipline not to exceed them during an emergency. As accident
investigators repeatedly conclude, “self-imposed psychological pressure” causes us to
make poor decisions when adrenaline clouds our judgment. Poor decision-making is
preventable yet, tragically, it is a factor in the vast majority of helicopter rescue
accidents.
You cannot disregard the fact that a helicopter is a machine. You might expect it to
provide dependable service, but helicopters do break down, disrupting operational
plans or leaving rescuers stranded. Always be prepared with backup plans and require
field rescuers to be prepared. A helicopter is one additional operational tool for rescue,
not a panacea to be applied in every rescue situation.
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When multiple transportation options are available, rescuers should determine which
technique offers the least risk and greatest gain both for rescuers and the rescue
subject. Evaluate the totality of the circumstances surrounding the incident, including
the duration and difficulty of a conventional evacuation, rescuer and patient safety, the
severity of the patient’s injury, current and projected environmental hazards, personnel
and aircraft availability, and transport time to a definitive care facility.
The following questions can assist in the decision to use a helicopter for rescue:
• Are conditions adequate for communication with all involved rescue personnel, or do
communications barriers exist?
• Is a safe landing site available within a reasonable distance of the accident site?
• Does the urgency of the subject’s condition require getting someone to the accident
site as quickly as possible?
• Is the risk associated with traversing terrain to the accident scene greater than the
risk of using specialized helicopter rappel, short-haul, or hoisting techniques?
• Are all helicopter crewmembers proficient with the helicopter rescue technique being
considered?
• Do extreme environmental factors prevent the use of a helicopter?
• Would the immediate insertion of advanced life support (ALS) care to the scene
convert an urgent medical case to a lower priority ground evacuation?
o Insertion of a trained EMS provider, who conducts a proper assessment, may
permit appropriately downgrading the rescue plan to a ground ambulance
transport of the patient. The primary task of the rescue helicopter is locating
and assessing the patient with transport to definitive care being conducted
when justified.
Mission Decisions
1. Assess the situation: Weigh the relative level of urgency, the condition of the
rescue subject (or subjects), and stability of the incident.
2. Determine the alternatives: Review the various rescue options, including the
level of complexity and the risk involved. Greater complexity and risk add
significantly to the potential for mission failure.
3. Select an alternative: The choice of an appropriate rescue plan should be based
on the safety of rescuers rather than the safety of the subject.
4. Execute the plan: Initiate the rescue response according to established
procedures and reevaluate your ongoing actions. Avoid the “press on regardless”
mentality. If the plan is not working, change your operational response.
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Additionally, the AFRCC will not launch a rescue helicopter for a known civilian fatality
recovery, unless the ground recovery effort would place a rescue team in potential
jeopardy. Regardless, fatality recovery requests will be evaluated on a case-by-case
basis for approval by the commanding officer of the responding SAR unit.
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The military utilizes a “9 Line MEDEVAC Format” for requesting a helicopter evacuation
on the battlefield. The format, with adaptation, can be employed during peacetime SAR
operations as well. The initial five lines are most important and adequate for launch
when calling in a MEDEVAC, the additional four lines can be relayed when aircraft are
in the air.
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M.I.S.T. Report
The M.I.S.T. Report can been incorporated into the 9 Line MEDEVAC report and
traditionally is provided following the 9 Line format.
M- Mechanism of injury (IED, gunshot wound, MVA, etc.)
I- Type of Injury (found and or suspected)
S- Signs (pulse rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate)
T- Treatment given (ketamine, tourniquet, etc.)
A/C- Adult/Child (include age if known)
U.S. federal land management agencies (U.S. Forest Service and Department of
Interior) adhere to the following visibility and wind restrictions for “special use” missions
(e.g., mountainous flying, unimproved helispot, or less than 500 ft. [152 m] AGL)
involving light helicopters:
• Maximum sustained winds of 35 mph (30 knots)
• Wind gust spread (range from minimum to maximum) of 17 mph (15 knots)
• One-half mile (0.8 km) forward visibility.
1
Baker, Susan, et al. EMS Helicopter Crashes: What Influences Fatal Outcomes?
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Night vision goggles (NVG) increase the aircrew’s situational awareness, ability to
safely navigate, and dramatically decrease the associated risk (Figure 3). In
comparison to daylight operations, they do have operational limitations, including
reducing a user’s depth perception, which is an important factor during external work
such as hoist operations. While operating NVG’s it is difficult to identify suspended
wires, which are also difficult to see day or night. The goggles themselves have a
narrow 40°field of view (smaller than the normal human binocular visual field of 120°
3
[vertical] by 200° [horizontal]) , however since they are suspended over an inch from
the eye they do not restrict the user from looking below the goggles or peripherally to
the side in order to perform an unaided task.
Night vision goggles function by capturing all available existing ambient light, such as
starlight or moonlight, which is comprised of photons and converting the photons into
electrons with a photocathode tube. The electrons are then amplified and increased to
a greater number through an electrical and chemical process. Against a phosphorus
screen the amplified electrons are changed into visible light that can be seen as a
green hued image in the eyepiece. NVG’s use a green colored screen (Figure 4),
because the human eye is most sensitive to the wavelength spectrum associated with
green light. Depending upon the detectability of a missing search subject, a SAR
operator may consider delaying a search mission till darkness, based upon NVG’s
2
American Optometric Association (AOA). The Eye and Night Vision.
3
United Nations Logistics Base. Night Vision Goggles Limitations, page 2.
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4
Globalsecurity.org website. Night Vision Goggles (NVG).
5
Harris, Kim. Director of Operations. Aviation Specialties Unlimited.
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Figure 5- Aviation Hazard Map. Gallatin National Forest. U.S. Forest Service.
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The following references (Boxes 1and 2) provide some excellent considerations and
reminders to be employed during all aviation mission-planning efforts:
6
NWCG, Interagency Helicopter Operations Guide, chapter 6.
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These five steps of the risk management process should be viewed as a cyclic process
(Figure 6). Upon reaching the fifth step of evaluating and monitoring the operation,
personnel should return to the first step, so that they are actually improving their
situational awareness by updating their “mental image” of the mission with more
accurate updated information. This moves personnel forward in a continuous loop,
which permits them to react to the dynamic changes occurring on an incident.
7
NWCG- Incident Response Pocket Guide, page 1.
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8
U.S. Coast Guard. “Operational Risk Management.” Commandant Instruction 3500.3.
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2. Accept Necessary Risk When Benefits Outweigh Costs: The process of weighing
risks against opportunities and benefits helps to maximize unit capability. Even high-risk
endeavors may be undertaken when decision-makers clearly acknowledge the sum of
the benefits exceeds the sum of the costs.
3. Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level: The appropriate level to make risk
decisions is that which most effectively allocates resources to reduce the risk, eliminate
the hazard, and implement controls. This includes ground rescue personnel scrutinizing
their own plan to request a helicopter rescue and whether it is truly appropriate. Incident
personnel developing a plan of action must ensure subordinates are aware of their own
limitations and when to refer a decision to a higher level.
4. Integrate ORM into Operations and Planning at All Levels: While ORM is critically
important in an operation’s planning stages; risk can change dramatically during an
actual mission. Incident personnel should remain flexible and integrate ORM in
executing tasks as much as in planning for them.
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• TEAM FITNESS- Consider physical and mental state of the crew. Evaluate team
morale and any distractions.
Why this procedure really works… The ability to assign numerical scores or color
codes in the GAR Model is not the key ingredient in how this process serves to perform
effective risk assessment. The key ingredient occurs when team members discuss their
post-scoring results together, because it generates valuable discussion toward
understanding the risks and how the team will manage them. Ultimately, it slows down
the operational tempo and forces rescuers to carefully think rather than simply react.
9
U.S. Coast Guard. “Operational Risk Management.” Commandant Instruction 3500.3.
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Public Aircraft
Public aircraft are considered by the FAA to be those owned or leased by the federal,
state, or a local government agency. Previously it was considered public aircraft
operations could not involve compensation between government entities, as it would
place the aircraft “for hire” in the civil aircraft (Part 135 operations) category. The
Independent Safety Board Act Amendments of 1994, (Public Law 103-411) clarified the
definition of public aircraft and held that one government agency could receive
compensation for providing aircraft services to another government agency.
Furthermore, it does not include public aircraft transporting passengers—“other than
when transporting crewmembers or other persons aboard the aircraft whose presence
is required to perform, or is associated with the performance of, a governmental
function such as firefighting, search and rescue, law enforcement, aeronautical
10
research, or biological or geological resource management.” Ultimately, the status of
a "public aircraft" depends on its use within government service and the type of
operation being conducted at the time. The European equivalent of the FAR is the
11
Joint Aviation Regulations (JAR), which has no such provision for public aircraft.
10
FAA, Government Aircraft Operations
11
Joint Aviation Authorities, JAR OPS3
12
Federal Aviation Administration, Government Aircraft Operations. Advisory Circular 00-1.1.
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FAR Part 133.31, Emergency Operations (a), states, “In an emergency involving the
safety of persons or property, the certificate holder may deviate from the rules of this
part to the extent required to meet that emergency.” The intent of this regulation is not
to give rescue organizations, when confronted with a life-threatening emergency on the
ground, clearance to violate FAA rules in order to accomplish a mission. It is important
to understand that Part 133.31(a) refers to in-flight emergencies and the helicopter
pilot’s deviation from rules to handle such an emergency. 13 Rescue organizations
unfortunately have sometimes interpreted this regulation as a loophole that allows them
to improvise a helicopter rescue operation. However, the fact is, such a practice
removes the critical need for advanced training, and crews may end up carrying out a
mission without the requisite proficiency and risk management.
Mission Management
The success of a mission is directly related to how well it is organized and managed.
Establish an adequate incident management structure through the incident command
system (ICS) for the identified response. To achieve this, the role of command must be
clearly identified to all personnel; an adequate span of control must be maintained to
prevent task overload; and staffing positions must be filled with trained, qualified rescue
workers. For large scale responses, activate the positions of air support group
supervisor, helibase manager, and helispot manager to coordinate the arrivals and
departures of numerous helicopters. This type of positive control of aviation assets
prevents the incident from turning into an unmanaged “air show,” in which pilots and air
crews are forced to operate without direction.
Flight Following
Flight following is a positive system of tracking aviation assets. It provides an
operational safety net in the event a rescue helicopter becomes overdue during a
mission. The aircraft’s position is reported automatically through its GPS and an
onboard satellite modem or alternatively by a crewmember at least hourly (every 15
minutes is preferable) to a dispatch center, air traffic control, or incident command (air
operations branch if available). This provides a last known point from which to start
search efforts, thereby reducing the response time to reach personnel who may be
injured.
13
Harrington, Nick. Aviation Safety Inspector. Federal Aviation Administration.
14
Wiener, Earl, Barbara Kanaki, and Robert Helmreich. Cockpit Resource Management, page 5.
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Good CRM relies on the dedicated actions of people, which are unfortunately not
without flaws. A breakdown in effective CRM repeatedly leads to accidents. During
helicopter rescue operations, effective CRM needs be achieved not only amongst the
flight crew but also extend well beyond the aircraft to include communications personnel
(dispatch), ground rescuers, incident command staff, and additional responding
agencies. One of the best means to practice good CRM is through effective and
professional communication strategies, which eliminate confusion and avoid assuming
information has been adequately shared. The importance of several of the
communications techniques found within this text, such as conducting briefings and
utilizing direct statements all contribute back to improved CRM.
Communications
Clear precise communications eliminates the pitfalls that have jeopardized many
missions. Common hand signals (Figure 6) are useful when combined with radio
transmissions, because they are instantly understood and avoid the problems of
garbled messages and radio frequency congestion. However, pilots who are not familiar
with or confident of the ground personnel using the hand signals may ignore the signals
or rely on their own best judgment instead. Working and training in advance builds the
necessary trust and familiarity between aircrews and ground rescuers.
15
NWCG, Incident Response Pocket Guide, page ix.
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Hand Signals
Hand signals are vital since they can provide an immediate backup technique in the
event of a communication failure. Standardized hand signals used by federal land
management agencies (Figure 7) as well as by the U.S. Navy (Table 2) can provide an
instant means of communication that is not subject to interference from other sources
like radio transmissions. The effectiveness of hand signals is hampered by lighting and
distance. Ground rescue personnel should give hand signals in a large and
exaggerated manner to prevent misinterpretation by the flight crew.
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An example of a direct statement might be, “Jane, I think we need to move personnel
away from this hazardous location. Don’t you agree?”
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It may sound elementary, but this technique is surprisingly effective. A direct statement
gets the person’s attention and forces the individual to deal with your concern rather
than allowing him or her to ignore your message.
Briefing Personnel
When we work together in a small team during an emergency, our ability to share
information and develop a “shared mental image” is the key to effective teamwork. The
incident commander must adequately communicate their intent and plans to other
rescuers. The following checklist (Box 3) provides an effective means for
communicating a plan in critical circumstances.
The strength of this concise briefing format is found in the last line. When we openly
solicit feedback from team members with an open-ended statement we create a culture
that encourages communication. This is far different from asking, “any questions?”
Multi-Tasking
During a challenging rescue it is easy to quickly become “over-tasked.” We falsely
believe that we are good at multi-tasking, which is more accurately described as
16
“concurrent task management.” The reality is that we are prone to errors while
attempting to manage multiple tasks. For example, while completing a procedural
checklist, we may fail to complete an intermediate task, due to being distracted by
someone asking a question. An increased workoad often results in the “omission of
crucial task elements, along with loss of situation awareness and poor decsion
making.” 17
16
Loukopoulos, Loukia, R. Key Dismukes, and Immanuel Barshi. The Multitasking Myth, page 11.
17
Ibid, page 20.
18
Ibid, page 106.
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Inattentional
blindness, which is
“looking without
seeing”, causes us to
fail to notice an
unexpected stimulus
in our field of vision
when other attention-
demanding tasks are
being performed.
How can a trained
rescuer walk into a
spinning helicopter
rotor? It happens
because humans
become overloaded
with stimuli, and it is
impossible to pay
attention to all stimuli
in one's environment. Figure 8- Avoid distractions. Use team members effectively for
monitoring and crosschecking. Two rescuers, well-equipped for the
Recognizing the risk extreme conditions of a high altitude rescue operation, conduct short-haul
associated with training at Denali National Park & Preserve. Image copyright Menno
Boermans.
interruptions and
distraction can assist
a person in being cautious when they need to interrupt someone else. Ask team
members for assistance in monitoring and crosschecking (Figure 8). Use checklist,
visual cues, reminders and monitoring to safeguards against errors of omission.
Landing Zones
The urgency of a helicopter rescue can result in flight and/or ground crews utilizing a
landing zone that is less than adequate, typically because of the proximity to an
accident scene. This action has directly resulted in rotor strikes with terrain, vessels,
cables, wires, foreign object debris and tragically, rescue personnel on the ground. 19
Select an adequately sized landing zone, based upon the type helicopter being
employed (Table 3).
19
Phillips, Ken. Unpublished analysis of Helicopter Rescue Accidents- IKAR
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Rotor Wash
Management of dust by wetting
down the landing surface or snow Figure 9- Helispot Landing. Helicopter evacuation of ill
by compaction can minimize the climber at 14,200 feet (4,328m) elevation being conducted
amount of blowing particles that by National Park Service rescuers at Denali National Park &
reduce visibility during landings and Preserve with contract AS350 B3 helicopter. Image
take offs. The rotor wash from an copyright Menno Boermans.
unmanaged dust or snow covered
landing zone could result in a brownout or whiteout as the aircraft attempts touchdown,
resulting in spatial disorientation for the pilot. In Iraq and Afghanistan, brownout was a
critical concern with it being responsible for three out of every four U.S. military
helicopter accidents. 20 A landing zone covered in tall grass may contain hidden
hazards, such as large rocks, and the grassy surface can develop wavelike motions
resulting in disorientation for the pilot.
20
Wadock, Alan J., et al. Downwash Flow Field Study_, page 1.
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The concern of increased rotor wash (downwash) from larger aircraft (Figure 10) is a
significant hazard to ground rescuers, which should be carefully evaluated in mission
planning. The potential exists for an unsecured rescuer in technical terrain being struck
by powerful rotor wash or the associated propelled debris. This situation claimed the life
of a park ranger during a hoist rescue at Mount Rainier National Park on June 21, 2012,
while he worked 50 feet beneath a CH-47 Chinook on an icy 35° slope 21. Consciously
evaluate if the aircraft being employed will create unnecessary risk with the increased
rotor wash in the specific rescue environment and what specific actions can be taken to
reduce this hazard.
Figure 10- Rotor Outwash Study. Velocity vectors from rotor outwash are shown in a
transverse plane for the EH-101 (AgustaWestland AW101) Merlin Helicopter. It is important to
note that the greatest velocities are generated near the rotor tips. Source: Rotorcraft
Downwash Flow Field Study to Understand the Aerodynamics of Helicopter Brownout by Alan
Wadcock et. al. Reprinted with permission of the author.
Hot Loading
Hot loading (engine running) or hot off-loading of a helicopter sometimes may be
required for efficiency, such as for crew shuttles and power-on landings. However,
remember that this practice poses greater risk for personnel particularly from possible
rotor droop if engine RPM is reduced. Anticipate the situation and secure loose debris
and gear in advance. Shutting down the aircraft to load personnel or a rescue subject
dramatically reduces the risk and increases the safety of everyone working near the
aircraft.
21
NPS. Serious Accident Investigation-June 21,2012.
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Load Calculation
To ensure that a helicopter is not exceeding maximum gross weight (equipped weight
plus entire load), a load calculation should be prepared before any mission. The
Department of the Interior (DOI) and U.S. Forest Service (USFS) use an Interagency
Helicopter Load Calculation Form (NFES #1064), which is completed by the pilot
(Figure 11). The military employs a Performance Planning Card, which are specific to
the model of aircraft.
22
FAA Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, chapter 7
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During agency incident operations, the pilot-in-command (PIC) should be kept informed
of altitudes and temperatures aircraft will be expected to operate, so that out-of-ground
effect allowable payloads can be calculated. When military aircraft are employed,
agency helibase personnel are responsible for providing the military crew chief with an
accurate manifest of passengers and cargo. For complex missions requiring numerous
insertions of personnel, military aircrews may utilize an Assault Support Serial
Assignment Table (ASSAT) or Assault Support Landing Assignment Table (ASLAT) as
planning documents to plan the manifest for each load.
Pilot Responsibility
The final authority regarding any aircraft is always the PIC. This authority is provided by
14 CFR part 91.3(a), which states that the “pilot in command of an aircraft is directly
responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.”
In a two pilot aircraft, the PIC concept fails to capture the role and responsibility of the
other pilot in the cockpit (Figure 12). The term Pilot Flying (PF), identifies the pilot who
has responsibility for flying the aircraft for a segment of flight. The other pilot is
designated as 'Pilot Not Flying' (PNF) or more accurately 'Pilot Monitoring' (PM). The
role of the PNF is to monitor the flight management, aircraft control actions of the PF,
and carry out support duties such as communications and check-list reading.
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Helicopter Flight
Characteristics and
Limitations
A basic understanding of the
flight characteristics of
helicopters can allow ground
rescuers to make more
informed decisions regarding
rescue plans.
Helicopter
Aerodynamics 23
The main rotor blades on a
helicopter rotate in a
Figure 12- Two pilot configuration. Two USAF 41st Rescue
horizontal circular area and Squadron pilots fly an HH-60G Pave Hawk during training at Moody
act as “wings” or airfoils to Air Force Base, GA. U.S. Air Force photo, Airman 1st Class
create lift for the helicopter. Benjamin Wiseman.
Landing into the wind aids
this aerodynamic principle, because with the increased wind velocity over the airfoil,
less power is required to achieve the same amount of lift. This is an important concept
for ground rescuers to understand, because a pilot will attempt to land and take off into
the direction of the oncoming wind.
Flight controls employed by the pilot include anti-torque floor pedals, collective, and
cyclic (Figure 13). The rotational motion of the rotor blades generates torque in the
opposite direction. A tail rotor or adjustable jet thruster in the tail boom, controlled by
floor pedals, provides anti-torque control to compensate and prevent the helicopter from
Figure 13- Helicopter Flight Controls. Three primary helicopter flight controls include cyclic, collective,
and anti-torque foot pedals. Image courtesy FAA.
23
FAA Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, chapter 3
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spinning out of control. The pilot can vary the pitch of the main rotor blades to permit
the helicopter to climb or descend through the use of the collective pitch control while
the cyclic control, located between the pilot’s legs, directs the forward, backward, and
sideways movement of the helicopter through corresponding tilting of the rotor disc.
Ground Effect
The proximity of the helicopter to the ground can result in increased lift from the
interaction of the rotor downwash with the ground. Hover in ground effect (HIGE)
typically occurs one half the rotor diameter above the surface, where the ground
interrupts the airflow under the helicopter, and the velocity of the induced airflow to the
rotor system is reduced (Figure 14). The result is less induced drag and more vertical
lift. This ground effect is beneficial in flight because it increases the lift capability of the
helicopter, which consequently requires less power to maintain a hover. Ground effect
is less effective when positioned over uneven terrain, vegetation, water, or high grass
because these surfaces absorb some of the downwash energy beneath the rotor disc.
As a helicopter climbs away from the ground surface it loses this effect of increased lift.
Hover out of ground effect (HOGE) occurs at an altitude high enough that the added
benefit of ground effect is not obtained.
Figure 14- Ground effect. Air circulation patterns change when hovering out of ground effect (HOGE)
and when hovering in ground effect (HIGE). Image courtesy FAA.
Autorotation
Autorotation allows a helicopter to land safely, within defined limits, if the engine fails in
flight. Helicopters have a freewheeling unit in the transmission which automatically
disengages the engine from the rotor system in the event of failure, permitting the main
rotor to spin freely. As the helicopter descends, the airflow is upward through the rotor
system, causing a windmilling of the blades. By changing the pitch of the blades, the
pilot can maintain constant rpm. The pilot slows the aircraft using the stored blade
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inertia and can cushion the helicopter to a landing. The required airspeed for successful
autorotation varies based on altitude and helicopter type. For most light, single engine
helicopters this minimum height, as in a hover, is 350 to 450 feet (107 to 137 m) above
ground level. 24 This has serious implications for all helicopter rescue personnel,
because the low-altitude hovers used for hoisting, short-haul, and rappelling operations
all occur within the cautionary portions of the height-velocity curve charts.
Translational Lift
Translational lift is the additional lift generated as the helicopter transitions from a hover
to horizontal flight. This additional lift comes from the increased efficiency of the rotor
system, which generates more lift in forward flight, as a result of higher in-flow velocity
of air mass than during a hover.
Density Altitude
Density altitude (DA) provides a measure of the air density corrected for temperature
and humidity variations at altitude. The DA greatly affects a helicopter’s performance.
At lower elevations, the rotor blade cuts through denser air, which provides better
performance than the air at higher altitudes. At an altitude of 10,000 feet (3,048m), for
example, there are fewer air molecules per cubic foot of air, which results in diminished
performance. An increase in humidity has a minor effect on DA when compared with an
increase in the altitude or temperature. Aircraft performance charts therefore commonly
reflect only air temperature and pressure altitude. To understand the dramatic effects of
DA, consider that on an 80° F (27º C) day at 8,000 feet (2,438m), the higher DA causes
the aircraft to perform as if it were at 11,100 feet (3,383m)!
Hover Ceiling
The hover ceiling is the highest altitude at which a helicopter can successfully hover
while loaded to its maximum gross weight. In and out of ground effect hover ceilings are
computed at maximum gross weight.
Center of Gravity
The CG is the point in a helicopter where all forces are balanced, typically under the
rotor mast. This is a critical balance for safe flight, and it is effected by the distribution of
the weight of fuel, personnel, and cargo in the helicopter.
Helicopter Landings
From a risk management perspective, the preferred helicopter landing is a full
touchdown landing at a suitable flat landing zone clear of obstructions. This method
poses less risk to the aircrew and ground rescuers. In some situations, higher risk
landing techniques must be utilized:
24
Department of the Interior, Basic Aviation Safety, p.8
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Slope Landings
Landing across a slope of 5° is considered the maximum for normal operation of most
helicopters. Landing with the helicopter facing downslope increases the risk of striking
the tail on the surface. The risk of landing across a slope is that a helicopter is
susceptible to a lateral rolling phenomenon called dynamic rollover.
For dynamic rollover to occur, some factor must first cause the helicopter to roll or pivot
around a skid or landing gear wheel, until its critical rollover angle is reached. If the
critical rollover angle is exceeded, the helicopter rolls on its side regardless of the cyclic
control corrections made. Dynamic rollover may also occur if the pilot does not use the
proper landing or takeoff technique or while performing slope operations. Dynamic
rollover can occur in both skid and wheel equipped helicopters, and all types of rotor
25
systems.
One-Skid Landings
A one-skid landing is used in rugged terrain where the topography prevents a normal
landing with both skids on the ground and the pilot may have to put a single skid or
landing wheel alongside the slope to allow boarding or exiting. During the maneuver,
the helicopter remains “in flight” at full power.
Toe-In Landings
A toe-in landing is
similar to a one-skid
landing in that only the
front tips of the skids
make contact with the
ground (Figure 15).
One-skid and toe-in
landings put the aircraft
close to physical
hazards. Although
used by many
agencies, these
techniques require
practice and are not a
recommended option
for most teams,
especially those with
only intermittent
Figure 15- Toe-In Landing. Using a Eurocopter EC 135 T2, rescuers from
experience in the Italian rescue association Aiut Alpin Dolomites, conduct a toe-in landing
helicopter operations. near the Passo Sella in the Dolomites. Image copyright Mateo Taibon.
Additionally, this
introduces a pivot point that could generate conditions resulting in dynamic rollover.
25
FAA. Rotorcraft Flying Handbook, page 10-6.
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Hover Landings
Hover or step-out landings are utilized to drop off or pick up passengers and cargo
while the helicopter is held in a hover. The helicopter is not in contact with the ground,
and its CG can shift laterally and longitudinally.
Power-On Landing
A less risky consideration for a marginal landing zone is a power-on landing, in which
the pilot places both skids in full contact with the ground while running full power to
maintain the position of the aircraft. This type of landing may be an operational
consideration, where a minimal or sloping touchdown pad is bordered by a steep drop
in terrain. It may be the preferred technique during snow landings where depth and
firmness are unknown precluding powering down the helicopter.
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• Provide visual wind indicators for landing and takeoff; stand at the edge of the
landing zone with your back to the wind and your arms pointing at the touchdown
pad.
• When working on the ground around a helicopter, wear eye and hearing
protection, along with a helmet secured by a chin strap.
• When approaching or departing from aircraft, nothing should be carried above
shoulder level.
• Secure all cargo placed aboard the helicopter; provide the pilot or aircrew with
accurate weights.
• Hot loading of passengers or a rescue subject involves greater risk; always be
alert when conducting such a maneuver. Consider reducing the risk when
practical by shutting down the aircraft.
• Landing zones should have acceptable rotor clearance for the aircraft assigned
to the incident, and all incident personnel should be aware of these clearance
requirements.
• As a passenger, know the aircraft’s location and have a mental plan for what to
do in the event of a crash or in-flight emergency.
• While working on the ground beneath the helicopter, during hover phases, all
rescue personnel must be aware of the aircraft's position and maintain a
constant vigilance upon the belly of the aircraft.
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26
Stern and Stern Industries, Inc.. Nomex® Fabric.
27
PBI Performance Products.
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than ¼ inch penetration. 28 For comparison the European Norm (EN) 12492 and
UIAA 106 certification for a climbing helmet involves a penetration test
performed with a 6.6 lb. (3.0 kg) weight dropped from 3.2 feet (1.0 m). The flight
helmet’s design allows communication through a noise-canceling microphone
and earphones in the ear cups.
It is important to recognize that military flight helmets and aircraft employ a low
impedance design, while civilian flight helmets employ a high impedance design,
thereby creating an equipment incompatibility. This design difference can be
overcome with an adapter. Other features of a flight helmet include noise
suppression, a protective visor, and an energy-absorbing liner. A maxillofacial
shield (MFS), which can be attached with latches to a HGU-56/P helmet,
protects the lower facial area from flying debris. Even though ground rescuers
aboard helicopters on rescue missions frequently wear climbing helmets and
firefighter hard hats, a flight helmet is a superior protective device, since it is
specifically designed for this application.
• Footwear and hand, eye, and ear protection: Fire resistant or leather gloves,
as well as leather boots that are at least ankle height, provide added protection
against fire injuries. Nylon components on lightweight hiking boots can melt in a
post-crash fire, resulting in burn injuries. The environment of the rescue, such as
winter alpine conditions or over-water operations, may dictate footwear (e.g.,
plastic mountaineering boots) that is more reasonable for outside conditions.
Fire-resistant clothing should have sleeves that can be worn over the gauntlet of
the gloves and legs long enough to eliminate exposure between the clothing and
the tops of the boots. Sunglasses or clear safety goggles provide excellent eye
protection for the blowing prop wash generated by helicopters. Disposable
earplugs provide added hearing protection against the high decibel levels of
helicopters.
• Life vest: When over-water flights lack sufficient glide distance to shore, the
aircrew should don an aviation life vest for personal safety. A manually inflatable
(not auto inflate), FAA-approved aviation life vest is required as opposed to a
bulky, U.S. Coast Guard–approved, foam-filled personal flotation device (PFD),
which would actually restrict a user’s ability to safely exit an aircraft submerged in
water.
28
Montenegro James, Lead Quality Engineer, Gentex Corp.
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Personal Preparedness
Helicopter rescuers can quickly find themselves deployed into an extreme environment
in which they are not adequately prepared to function. They are vulnerable to accidents
arising from environmental hazards, such as talus, exposed cliff faces, snow or ice, and
swift water. The choice of footwear and outerwear, as well as personal survival gear
kept on their person, should be a top priority for aircrew members who could be
exposed to such extremes.
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1. Secure loose items. Put your flight helmet visor down and sweep the boom microphone
to the side.
2. Unplug your flight helmet.
3. Establish a reference point with your hand (e.g. a door handle). Do not let go of your
reference point.
4. Just before contact with the water, crack open the aircraft door.
5. As the aircraft settles in the water, count slowly to five to allow rotor movement to
cease.
6. Release your seat belt with your free hand.
7. Know your second exit, if your primary route is blocked.
8. Exit the aircraft, following your reference point hand.
9. Do not kick, since other personnel could be right behind you.
10. Swim out horizontally and then up.
11. Hand up, look up, and come up toward the surface, following the air bubbles.
12. Survey the surface for hazards and survivors.
13. Inflate your flotation device (don’t inflate it inside the aircraft).
During hoisting and short-haul operations, a litter attendant is not in a practical position
to perform extensive medical care in-flight. However, the litter attendant is very
important in these types of operations. A supine patient who vomits and aspirates in-
flight is a potential problem. The eight classic stressors of flight transport, affect a
rescue subject including noise,
vibration, and thermal changes that Box 6. Eight Classic Stressors of
occur during helicopter rescue Flight Transport
operations (Box 6) (Figure 18). Low- 1. Noise
frequency vibration can induce motion 2. Vibration
sickness, which stimulates the “vomiting 3. Thermal changes
center” of the medulla. In addition, 4. Fatigue
vibration can cause fatigue, shortness 5. Barometric pressure
of breath, and abdominal and chest 6. Decreased humidity
pain. Vibration against a subject causes 7. Decreased partial pressure of oxygen
mechanical energy to be transformed 8. Gravity (G) forces
into heat energy as body tissues
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If an adequate power margin exists with the helicopter, a litter attendant is beneficial for
an injured subject during hoisting and short-haul operations. The presence of an
attendant has a considerable positive psychological influence in reducing the injured
subject’s anxiety level. Prior to transport a patient’s airway must be stable or secured
with an advanced airway device. Practice and ensure proper attendant positioning in
relation to the subject. An inclined, head-up position for the litter, and providing an
accompanying attendant to clear the subject’s airway manually could make a critical
difference. The litter attendant should have a handheld manual suction device readily
available on a tether. Unlike other forms of vomiting, vestibular emesis is not relieved by
throwing up; therefore, continual suctioning and being prepared to clear the airway
several times are vital.
29
Holleran, Reneé Semonin. ASTNA Patient Transport: Principles and Practice, chapter 5.
30
Epilepsy Society (United Kingdom). Photosensitive Epilepsy.
31
Ibid.
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The unpressurized helicopter cabin affects care of the subject during changes in
elevation because of the principles of common gas laws. Boyle’s law states that under
conditions of constant temperature and quantity, there is an inverse relationship
between the volume and pressure of a gas. As a helicopter climbs to higher altitude, a
volume of gas is forced to expand. This can lead to changes in the subject’s respiratory
rate and depth and in the performance of intravenous lines and also can affect the
rigidity of equipment such as the balloon cuffs of endotracheal tubes, vacuum
mattresses, and air splints. Elevation changes also can lead to impairment of already
injured subjects, including worsening of a pneumothorax or embolism, as well as onset
of hypoxia. A subject with a head injury or one who is combative, must be physically
and possibly pharmacologically restrained, so that there is no chance the person could
make contact with the flight controls or personnel.
32
Sikorsky Archives. Rescue Award- First Civilian Helicopter Rescue.
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The terms hoist and winch are often incorrectly used in referring to rescue hoists. For
clarification “hoists” are used for lifting and “winches” are used for pulling. (Note:
However the British do refer to a winch for lifting, which includes “helicopter winching.”)
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Overall helicopter hoisting shortens the suspended exposure time of the rescuer
beneath the helicopter. The fixed installation of a rescue hoist on a helicopter increases
operational efficiency, even though the weight of the rescue hoist adds to the overall
equipped weight of the helicopter, thus reducing the available payload. Other helicopter
rescue techniques can require delays for reconfiguring the aircraft for the mission. The
reality of the high cost and maintenance associated with helicopter rescue hoists
means that they are primarily available through the military and public safety agencies
in larger metropolitan areas.
Figure 20- Helicopter Rescue Hoist Designs. Level wind translating cable hoist where the drum is stationary
and a level wind translating drum hoist that has a moveable drum. Drawings copyright Breeze-Eastern
Corporation.
33
Teel, William. Senior Design Engineer, Goodrich Corporation.
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includes both internal and external mounting styles. Internally mounted rescue hoists
are configured on a vertical column extending from the floor structure, which
mechanically pivots out the aircraft doorway during deployment. An internal hoist
configuration can be changed over quickly to other serviceable aircraft, however it
consumes useable space within the aircraft interior. Externally mounted hoists can be a
fixed installation above the aft doorway or on a moveable boom controlled by the hoist
operator, which is stowed against the helicopter fuselage during forward flight.
The two primary rescue hoist designs include the level wind translating cable hoist and
a level wind translating drum hoist (Figure 20). The “level-wind” mechanism prevents
the line from being trapped under itself on the spool during rewinding. The drum of the
translating cable hoist remains stationary, while the level wind moves back and forth
spooling or unspooling the cable. The translating drum hoist has a cable drum that
moves in front of a stationary level wind during spooling and unspooling operations.
34
Teel, William. Senior Design Engineer, Goodrich Corporation.
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hoist is a serious concern that threatens operational safety. All hoist cables should be
run out from the hoist drum for a visual and tactile inspection after every hoist mission.
35
Doyle, Patrick. Engineer. Breeze-Eastern Corporation.
36
Dept. of Defense. Concept Evaluation of UH-60 Externally Mounted Rescue Hoist. Section 1.4.1
37
Dept. of Defense. Wire Rope Specification.
38
Mitchell, Michael. President. Zephyr International LLC.
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39
Australia Civil Aviation Safety Authority, AAC 1-103
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KINK
A loop in the cable may lead to developing a kink, which may be identified as open or
closed. An open kink is caused by pulling a cable loop tight, creating a permanent bend
which tends to open the lay of the cable. A closed kink is created in the same manner,
but creates a sharp permanent bend that tends to close the lay of the cable. A kink in a
cable significantly reduces the load capacity. The continued use of a kinked cable can
lead to the kink being caught in the cable guide assembly resulting in cable fouling.
Hoist operations should be terminated when a kinked cable develops.
ABRASION
A cable may develop abrasion if it contacts other material, such as aircraft structural
members. Dirt, sand, grit, and other foreign particles can also result in abrasion.
Abrasion weakens the cable by removing metal from the wires in the outer strands.
Cables that show signs of excessive abrasion should be removed from service.
BIRDCAGING
A deformity with a distinctive “birdcage” appearance may develop where a hoist cable
has significant stretched open or untwisted outer wraps of wire strands in an uneven or
irregular bulging manner. Minor uniform opening of strands, which can be corrected, is
not considered birdcaging. Severe birdcaging will result in a small bubble being formed
by the outer strands. Birdcaging results from torsional imbalance that occurs because
of mistreatments, such as sudden stops, cable being worked through tight sheaves, or
a hook bearing that is not rotating freely. A hoist evolution should be terminated if there
is the presence of birdcaging on a cable.
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OVERLOAD
A cable that has been severely overloaded may or may not show immediate results of
the overload. Visual broken wires are the most obvious defect, however, overloading
can cause broken core wires that are not readily visible. Necking-down is a noticeable
reduction of cable diameter indicating broken internal core wires. Any cable with
necking- down is cause for immediate replacement. Any cable that is known to have
been overloaded must be replaced prior to continued hoist operations. In such
situations, the hoist operation should be terminated and excess cable reeled in if
defects do not cause cable fouling.
Static Discharge
Helicopters generate static electricity as air particles move over the surface of the
fuselage and rotor blades. 40 A larger helicopter in drier air generates significantly more
static electricity because a greater surface area is interacting with air particles and an
increased air mass is moving over the fuselage. Composite fuselages increase the
potential for static charge buildup. Blowing snow or dust also increases the interaction
with the aircraft and the risk of static discharge. Forward flight causes some of the static
to bleed off the tail of the aircraft. However, in a hover, the static does not bleed off.
The practice of keying the radio microphone on board the aircraft to discharge the static
has only a limited effect, because it relieves only the static in the immediate vicinity of
the antennas. 41
40
Croucher, Phil. Helicopter Pilot’s Handbook, page 71.
41
Martin, Adam. Aeronautical Engineer, Sikorsky Aircraft Corp.
42
Ibid.
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Line Entanglement
The hazard of line entanglement has been described previously. During a helicopter
hoist rescue operations this is a very real concern as the cable reaches the ground or
structures. During hoist or short-haul rescues, a line or hook has become entangled
with rescuer packs, ices axes, harness gear loops, non-locking carabiners, and more.
These incidents have included fatal outcomes.
NOTE: All rescue personnel should be well-briefed regarding the danger of line
entanglement during helicopter hoist and short-haul operations.
Conscious efforts should be made to prevent entanglement of the hoist cable, or the
load on the line, with fixed objects on the ground. This is accomplished through
proactive planning and engineering an entanglement-free environment. The hoist
operator should maintain a visual reference with the hoist hook at all times. The
extraction phase of a short-haul should be treated as a critical phase of flight, with
increased vigilance and mental preparation toward reacting to a problem.
CABLE CUTTER
If the cable becomes
hopelessly entangled or
during an aircraft
emergency, the hoist
operator can activate an
emergency cable cutter
(Figure 26), which is an
electrically activated
squib charge that
propels a chisel-end
cutter, severing the
cable at the bell mouth,
where the cable exits the
Figure 26- Cable cutter control.
hoist. The cable cutter can Red guarded switch on hoist
also be activated through the pennant control. Image courtesy
pilot’s controls. A helicopter Travis County STAR Flight, Texas. Figure 27- AxelCut Cable
hoist operator needs to have Cutter. Image copyright
a secondary means of cutting Zephyr International.
43
EPA. Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF) Radiation from Power Lines.
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the cable in the event of a squib failure. Emergency cable cutters are mounted adjacent
to the hoist operator’s station. A standard cutting device is the Zephyr International
AxleCut Cable Cutter. The two-pound device provides a lightweight (2 lbs.) one-handed
cable cutting tool that does not rely on an explosive charge and is extremely effective
(Figure 27).
CABLE SPLICE
To become operational again,
once a cable has been
sheered manually (not with use
of the hoist-mounted ballistic
cutter), it is possible to utilize a
cable splice with a spare hoist
hook as a backup device
Figure 28- Cable Splice. Image copyright Aerial Machine
(Figure 28). This permits in- and Tool.
flight replacement of the hoist
hook for the purpose of
retrieving personnel when no backup hoist or aircraft is available. The hoist cable is
laced through preconfigured notches on the cable splice plate providing a secure
friction connection. Use of the cable splice will defeat the safety features of the stop
limit switches of the rescue hoist.
BELAY LINE
The U.S. Navy is one of the only agencies requiring use of a separate belay line in
conjunction with rescue hoist operations. Their procedures read; “A belay shall be used
in conjunction with all live practice hoist training evolutions above 10 feet AGL (3m).
When hoisting personnel during actual rescue operations, use of the belay system is
highly recommended. Failure of the rescue hoist system without the safety of a belay
44
system overland may result in serious injury or death to personnel on the hoist.”
Note: Navy procedures mandate the use of a belay plate device, however it is important
to note that such commercial devices are only designed to safely manage the force
associated with a single person load.
FLEET ANGLES
The lateral center-of-gravity (CG) limits on the helicopter establish the maximum load
rating for the hoist, if less than the manufacturer’s stated hoist capacity. As excessive
loads are placed out away from an imaginary line drawn down through the rotor mast,
the helicopter becomes out of balance.
Additionally limitations may be imposed upon the angle a load is out of alignment from
the hoist itself. This angle, formed between the loaded cable and an imaginary line
drawn perpendicular to the axis of the drum, is referred to as “fleet angle.” High fleet
angles (greater than 30 degrees) can be generated spontaneously from pitching vessel
decks, swift water operations, high winds, obstacles, terrain or factors beyond the
control of the flight crew. Since high fleet angles could potentially exceed the operating
44
U.S. Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1, sec. 4.4.4
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Figure 29- Hoisting with tag line. Los Angeles City Fire Department personnel aboard a twin
engine AugustaWestland AW139 prepare to receive a Bauman Bag equipped with a tagline, which
is controlled from the ground. Image courtesy of Los Angeles City Fire Department.
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45
U.S. Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1, sec. 5.4.1.7
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immediately transitioning
into forward flight away
from the scene. A tag line
is not utilized. This
technique has the
advantage of significantly
reducing hover time over
the rescue site. In order to
reduce the potential for
litter spinning during the
hoist, the patient must be
packaged in a helicopter
rescue bag (e.g. Bauman
Bag) as opposed to an
open basket stretcher Figure 31- Anti-Rotation Stabilizer for helicopter hoisting attached
(e.g. Stokes). Forward to Franco Garda Stretcher. Images copyright TSL Rescue, France.
flight does tend to dampen
out rotational spinning, which can sometimes be minimized by the rescuer attendant
sticking an arm out. Attaching a tail on a rescue litter to dampen spinning in forward
flight has included the use of a small windsock or drogue parachute, however there is
the potential for such a device to become an entanglement hazard while on the ground.
French manufacturer TSL Rescue working in conjunction with helicopter rescue
personnel has developed a foldable “anti-rotation stabilizer” which is designed to be
46
attached to their lightweight composite rigid stretcher (Figure 31). The majority of
European helicopter rescue operations successfully employ dynamic hoisting in
conjunction with medium-sized (Type II) helicopters (e.g. AS350 B3, EC-145, etc.),
throughout the Alps. This technique is also employed successfully by some civilian
agencies within the United States.
Hoist evolutions are conducted by the hoist operator maintaining control of the load
through the use of hoist controls, coordinated movement of the aircraft with the pilot,
and physical control of the cable with a leather gloved hand. The cable slack needs to
be kept to a minimum and all crewmembers must be vigilant to prevent situations that
would produce shock forces on the cable. A shock force or overloading the cable can
cause broken core wires that are not readily visible. Necking-down is a noticeable
46
TSL Rescue. Product catalogue, page 11.
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reduction of cable diameter indicating broken internal core wires. If a cable receives a
significant shock force, the hoist operation needs to be terminated. Also, moderate
surface winds can aid the hoist operation, since they increase the hovering capability of
helicopter.
Helicopter Rappel
HISTORY
Early use of the helicopter rappel
included military operations in combat.
The 11th Air Assault Division (U.S.
Army) introduced the earliest combat
use of helicopter rappelling in
combination with troop ladders in 1964-
1965. This was conducted in combat in
December, 1965, near An Khe in
Vietnam by the 1st Airborne Brigade of Figure 32- Heli-rappel insertion. Yosemite
47
the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile). National Park SAR (YOSAR) heli-rappeller
Helicopter rappelling, also known as descends from Bell 205A-1 helicopter (Helicopter
551). NPS photo by Dave Pope.
47
Mertel, Kenneth. Airmobile-style rappel and troop ladder, US Army Aviation Digest.
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heli-rappelling, has also been used in law enforcement tactical operations and wildland
fire suppression. It was first tested for wildland fire suppression in 1964 at Shasta Lake
in Northern California. 48
OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Rescuer insertion can be accomplished via helicopter rappelling
(Figure 32), which offers reduced exposure time of the rescuer
beneath the aircraft compared with a helicopter short-haul.
Helicopter rappelling has inherent hazards and mishaps have
occurred involving loss of descent control, with subjects striking the
ground; a jammed descender caused by entanglement with clothing
or hair; a rappel rope that does not reach the ground; and rappeller
injury caused by striking the door threshold or skid when exiting the
helicopter.
The U.S. Navy currently employs the Sky Genie descender device Figure 33- Sky Genie
(Figure 33) and related lines in rappel operations with a separate Descender. Image
attended belay line. Following a fatal rappel accident on July 21, copyright Descent
2009, the U.S. Forest Service critically reviewed their heli-rappel Control Inc.
program for wildland fire operations and use of the Sky Genie
device. A critical factor in the associated accident was “inattentional blindness” as the
rappeller had an improperly configured connection point to his harness, resulting in a
49
unrestrained fall to the ground as they prepared to depart from the aircraft.
Figure 34- Heli-rappel. Yosemite National Park SAR personnel conduct heli-rappel training
from a Bell 205A-1 helicopter using a Petzl RIG descender. NPS photo by Peter McDermott.
48
U.S. Forest Service, Helicopter Rappel Guide. 1990, p. 2
49
U.S. Forest Service, Aircraft Accident Investigation Report, July 21, 2009.
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Procedures for exiting the aircraft vary based on the make of the aircraft and its
configuration. Descents are typically made outside the helicopter skid, however on
smaller aircraft agencies have employed a technique of rappelling inside the skid to
maintain the CG of the helicopter. The size and allowable payload of the helicopter can
permit rappellers to depart from both sides of the aircraft simultaneously. Egress from
the aircraft should be coordinated by the on board spotter to be as smooth as possible.
As a rappeller initiates the descent on the outside of a helicopter skid, his or her weight
is transferred laterally away from the aircraft’s CG. This has the potential to exceed the
safe operating requirements of the helicopter.
Helicopter Short-haul
A helicopter short-haul rescue permits the
insertion of personnel, suspended beneath a
hovering helicopter on a fixed line, as well as the
extraction of a subject or rescuers from a site
where a helicopter cannot land.
HISTORY
As early as November 1952, the so-called
Figure 35- “Helicopter Lift Technique.”
“helicopter lift” technique was utilized by Swiss Air This early predecessor to the current
Rescue, which later became known as REGA helicopter short-haul technique was
(Figure 35). Swiss Air-Rescue REGA, founded in developed in 1952 by REGA. Image
copyright REGA.
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1952, is a non-profit foundation, which is a corporate member of the Swiss Red Cross.
REGA is derived from the German word Rettungsflugwacht (meaning air rescue
service), and its French name, Garde Aérienne (meaning air guard). The helicopter lift
technique involved a large hot-air balloon basket suspended directly beneath an early
model Hiller helicopter, carrying a rescuer. Although military extraction techniques (Box
7) were being developed simultaneously, Swiss Air Rescue introduced the “knotted
rope technique” in 1966 for use in mountain rescue. 50 This predecessor to helicopter
short-haul involved a line knotted at intervals that a rescuer would climb down and then
sit on a plastic disc seat at the end of the line beneath the helicopter. Parks Canada
incorporated the first civilian North American use of short-haul as the helicopter sling
rescue system (HSRS), with a rescue deployment in July 1972 on Mount Edith in Banff
National Park. 51
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OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
A helicopter short-haul is not a
procedure that should ever be
improvised on the spot. Ample training
of both pilot and rescue technicians is
mandatory for safe operations.
Helicopter short-haul requires pilot
proficiency in vertical reference flight
operations(Figure 36). Rescuer
proficiency is easier to maintain with the
short-haul technique than with helicopter
rappelling, since short-haul technique
requires fewer rescuer manipulations.
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ground rescuers to excessive rotor wash and the aircraft must descend closer to ground
hazards. Longer lengths create a vertical reference challenge for the pilot to control the
load.
Rescue harness selection for short-haul operations should evaluate how the rescuer
will fly when encumbered with a loaded pack. The best option is a configuration that
does not require the rescuer to grasp the line to maintain an upright orientation. This
can be accomplished by using a full-body harness with a sternal attachment point,
which raises the CG of the wear. Another option is to utilize a seat and chest harness
combination in conjunction with preconfigured tether straps (e.g. daisy chains girth
hitched to the seat harness and passed through the chest harness) that can quickly be
attached to the short-haul line.
Single-point rescuer attachment techniques are a standard for agencies involved in for
hoist or short-haul operations, but the key is that these must be configured with
52
U.S. Govt. 14 CFR. Part 27.865. External Loads.
53
DOI Helicopter Short-Haul Handbook. 2010 ed., page 7.
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The composition of the short-haul line needs to be a material that provides a high
strength-to-weight ratio. Line selection may include nylon or Dyneema®, the latter of
which is ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). The diameter of the line
will be based upon the breaking strength of the material to achieve the 10:1 SSSF. The
short-haul line is rigged with a weight close to the lower terminus, which prevents an
unloaded line from trailing too far behind the aircraft during forward flight and getting
close to the tail rotor. This can be a 12-20 lbs. (5.4-9 kg) weight bag, which is attached
to the line.
Although some rescue organizations use a Stokes-style litter for short-haul rescue
operations, a helicopter rescue bag (heli-rescue bag), such as a Bauman Bag provides
a much more aerodynamic patient transport device. These were designed specifically
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Bag connection point is made from the safety line to the short-haul line. During this time
the Bauman Bag will be momentarily disconnected from the safety line, however the
aircraft will not become tethered directly to the ground. There are more advanced
belaying techniques for managing a completely suspended litter during the initial phase
of a hoist extraction, which allow for a smooth transfer of weight to the short-haul line.
These techniques are beyond the scope of this text. The preferable scenario is to
relocate the stretcher on to a shelf or outcropping, where the full weight is supported by
the rock rather than a rope system.
Additionally, during an extraction, the exposed downhill side of the stretcher should be
kept free of personnel and rigging and considered off-limits. Stepping to the downhill
side of the litter during an extraction places a rescuer in jeopardy and creates the
potential for entanglement to occur.
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54
Bauman, Mavis. Rainy Day Equipment Ltd.
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Figure 49- Rescue Net. Billy Pugh Figure 48- Deployment of rescue net. The net is
model 872-SF. Image copyright Life readied for hoist deployment with locking sleeves slid over
Support International. the rib supports to maintain the overall shape of the net.
Illustration courtesy U.S. Navy.
55
U.S. Navy SAR Manual 3-50.1, sec 1.4.4.3
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Medevac Litter
This litter, utilized by the U.S. Navy and U.S.
Coast Guard, is suitable for rescues from
confined areas, such as interior spaces of a ship,
with its narrow profile (Figure 51). The litter has a
system of flotation components to provide
increased protection for a packaged subject
during a maritime rescue. It is constructed of a
tubular stainless steel frame and skids with a
break-apart design. Sliding couplers are used to
secure the two halves of the litter together. The
Medevac litter can be hoisted in either vertical or
horizontal positions. It is supplied with two litter
bearer harnesses for Figure 51- Medevac Litter.
carrying the litter on the Shown configured for
ground. The litter weighs deployment and (right) stowed
32 lbs. (14.5 kg). in storage bag. Image copyright
Lifesaving Systems Corp.
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Figure 55- Trail line deployment. Deployment configuration from standard rollup trail line
pouch. Compiled from U.S. Navy illustrations.
Rescue Strop
The rescue strop (aka "horse-collar")
is designed as a retrieval device for
uninjured personnel. The rescue strop
fits around the chest of a single
subject and is connected back to the
rescue hook assembly (Figure 56).
The strop is not meant to be utilized
on victims who have sustained
significant spinal injury unless the
circumstances does not permit
Figure 56- Rescue Strop. Image copyright Lifesaving
appropriately securing the injured Systems Corp.
subject in a more appropriate device.
The strop is typically a buoyant device
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Quick Strop
The quick strop (Figure 58) is similar in
design to the rescue strop. It is placed
under the arms, around the back, or over
the head of a subject. It can be deployed
quickly around a subject. The quick strop
has a friction slide that can snug the strop
around the subject. There is a length-
adjustable strap that is folded into a
pocket on the back of the quick strop.
The strap terminates in a snap hook. This
strap is routed between the survivor’s
legs and then clipped into the friction
slide when the survivor is unconscious.
Note: U.S. Coast Guard requires the use Figure 58- Quick Strop. A slider buckle cinched
of the crotch strap when an unconscious, down against the chest of a subject, used in
unresponsive, or incapacitated subject is conjunction with a groin strap, provides security
56
being hoisted. during hoisting. Image copyright Lifesaving Systems
Corp.
56
U.S Coast Guard- Helicopter Rescue Swimmer Manual, page 2-14.
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Screamer Suit
The Bauman Screamer Suit
(Figure 60), manufactured by
Rainy Day Equipment, is a quick
donning vest-style rescue
device which permits rapid
extrication of a subject by
means of short-haul or hoisting.
It hold the subject in a semi-
seated manner and is not
intended for a patient with a
spinal injury or other injury
requiring a litter evacuation The
device, which adjusts from
small patients to large patients
up to 500 lbs. (227 kg), avoids
the delay associated with
putting on a harness.
Figure 60. Bauman Screamer Suit. Quick donning
rescue device designed for evacuation of a subject with
limited injuries. Image copyright CMC Rescue.
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Hoisting Vest
The military hoisting vest (Figure 61) is
constructed of lightweight nylon mesh
material and is designed to accommodate
one person. To ease donning and size
adjustment of the vest, two adjustable torso
straps are easily attached to the lifting V-Ring
for hoisting. The vest takes up little room and
is easily donned for transfer of uninjured or
ambulatory personnel. It should not be
utilized for water rescues.
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During the debriefing, focus on WHAT not WHO. When an operational deficiency is
recognized attempt to identify the specific root cause so that appropriate corrective
action can be implemented. Taiichi Ohno, visionary Toyota executive and an architect
of the Toyota Production System, encouraged his staff to investigate the problem at the
source and to “ask ‘why’ five times about every matter”. 57 It is a good technique to make
sure that you are really getting down to the root cause of an issue. What truly caused
that to happen?
The helicopter rescue pack was missing some equipment. Why? The pack was
not resupplied following the last incident. Why? The pack was left in a vehicle.
Why? There is no formal equipment check-in established following a response.
Why? Such a practice was not necessary in the past. Why? The team was
smaller and the informal procedures were adequate…
Incident Review
Large-scale incidents, particularly those involving numerous agencies can be better
managed through a formal incident review, which is truly a more formal AAR. This
should be scheduled within a few days of the incident.
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Summary
In April 1944, three downed British soldiers and an American airman in the battlefield of
Burma heard the strange sound of an experimental Sikorsky YR-4 overhead. The pilot,
Lt. Carter Harman of the U.S. Army Air Force, is credited with making this first recorded
rescue operation involving a helicopter. In the heat and humidity Lt. Harman was only
able to carry one passenger at a time to a sandbar airstrip ten miles away for a
rendezvous with another aircraft. Harman conducted this heroic feat over 600 miles
away from his base. 58
58
Friends of the Helicopter Museum, First Helicopter Combat Rescue.
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Progress slowly and cautiously in Figure 63- Grand Teton Short-haul Rescue.
developing any helicopter rescue program. Lightning strike mass-casualty incident resulting in
Improvisation in the middle of a rescue is a seven injured and one fatality at Grand Teton
recipe for an accident. National Park. NPS photo by Leo Larson.
Finally, be disciplined with the use of a helicopter and avoid violating any safety
practices as well as deviating from policies or procedures in the heat of battle.
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Bibliography
American Optometric Association (AOA). The Eye and Night Vision. [Article adapted
from USAF Special Report, AL-SR-1992-0002, "Night Vision Manual for the Flight
Surgeon", written by Robert E. Miller II, Col, USAF, (RET) and Thomas J. Tredici, Col,
USAF, (RET)]. St Louis, MO. http://www.aoa.org/optometrists/tools-and-
resources/quick-reference-guides/aviation-vision/the-eye-and-night-vision. Accessed
September 1, 2013.
Baker, Susan, et al. EMS Helicopter Crashes: What Influences Fatal Outcome? Original
research from John Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Medicine. Annals of
Emergency Medicine. Dallas, TX. 2006.
Bauman, Mavis. Owner. Rainy Day Equipment Ltd. Nakusp, B.C. Canada. Personal
interview. January 4, 2012.
Department of Defense. U.S. Navy. Navy Search and Rescue Manual NTTP 3-50.1.
Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. Washington, DC. April 2009 edition.
http://www.public.navy.mil/surfor/Documents/3-50-1_SAR.pdf Accessed August 9,
2013.
Department of Defense. Wire Rope- Steel- Nonrotating for Aircraft Rescue Hoist.
Military Specification MIL-W-83140 [1]. April 1969. Washington, DC.
http://www.everyspec.com/MIL-SPECS/MIL-SPECS-MIL-W/MIL-W-83140_34437/
Accessed August 8, 2013.
Department of the Interior. Basic Aviation Safety. Office of Aircraft Services, Boise, ID
NFES #2097, April 1997.
Department of the Interior. Short-haul Handbook (351 DM1). Office of Aircraft Services,
Boise ID. 02-2010
http://oas.doi.gov/library/handbooks/library/Short-Haul+Handbook+Feb2010.pdf
Accessed August 8, 2013
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Friends of The Helicopter Museum . The First Helicopter Combat Rescue, Somerset,
UK. http://www.hmfriends.org.uk/combatrescue65th.htm Accessed July 31, 2013.
Harris, Kim. Director of Operations. Aviation Specialties Unlimited. Boise, ID. Personal
interview. December 22, 2011.
Holleran, Reneé Semonin. ASTNA (Air and Surface Transport Nurses Association)
Patient Transport: Principles and Practice, Fourth edition, Mosby Elsevier, St Louis,
MO. 2009.
Loukopoulos, Loukia, R. Key Dismukes, and Immanuel Barshi. The Multitasking Myth.
Ashgate. Farnham, Surrey, UK. 2009.
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Marty, Sid. Men for the Mountains. McClelland & Stewart Ltd. Toronto, Ontario.
Canada. 1978.
Mertel, Kenneth. Airmobile-style rappel and troop ladder, US Army Aviation Digest, U.S.
Army, Fort Rucker, AL (15-2), 10-13, February 1969.
National Park Service. Serious Accident Investigation: Factual Report. Falling Fatality of
NPS Rescue Climber on Emmons-Winthrop Glacier Within Mount Rainier National
Park- June 21,2012. Ashford, WA. 2012
Pushies, Fred. U.S. Army Special Forces: The Power Series. Motorbooks International.
St Paul, MN. 2001.
Sikorsky Archives. Rescue Award- First Civilian Helicopter Rescue. Igor I. Sikorsky
Historical Archives, Inc., Stratford, CT. Updated September 2012.
http://www.sikorskyarchives.com/Rescue_Award.php Accessed July 31, 2013.
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Stern and Stern Industries, Inc. - Fabric Weaving Specialists. Nomex® Fabric. Hornell,
NY. 2013.http://www.sternandstern.com/category/53/Nomex-Fabric.html Accessed
October 6, 2013.
Teel, William. Senior Design Engineer, Goodrich Corporation; Sensors & Integrated
Systems (Hoist & Winch). Diamond Bar, CA. Personal interview. January 13, 2012.
Toyota Motor Corporation. Ask “Why” Five Times About Every Matter. Aichi, Japan.
http://www.toyota-global.com/company/toyota_traditions/quality/mar_apr_2006.html.
Accessed May 19, 2012.
United Nations Logistics Base- Regional Aviation Safety Office. Night Vision Goggles
(NVGs) Limitations. Aviation Safety Awareness Information. Vol. 4, Issue 10. Brindisi,
Italy. http://www.unlb.org/AviationSafety/Details.asp?AsmID=19 Accessed October 8,
2013.
U.S. Coast Guard. Coast Guard Helicopter Rescue Swimmer Manual. COMDTINST
M3710.4C. Washington, DC. April 22, 2011.
U.S. Government, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Title 14- Part 27 Federal
Aviation Regulations (FAR). Washington, DC. Amended 1999.
Wadock, Alan J. and Lindsay A. Ewing, Eduardo Solis, Mark Potsdam, Ganesh
Rajagopalan. Rotorcraft Downwash Flow Field Study to Understand the Aerodynamics
of Helicopter Brownout. NASA Ames Research Center. Presented at the American
Helicopter Society Southwest Region Technical Specialists’ Meeting, “Technologies for
the Next Generation of Vertical Lift Aircraft,” Dallas-Fort Worth, TX, October 15-
17, 2008.
Wiener, Earl, Barbara Kanaki, and Robert Helmreich. Cockpit Resource Management.
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Department of the Interior. Aviation Policy: Departmental Manual 350 through 353.
Office of the Secretary of the Interior, Washington, DC., December 26, 1996.
http://amd.nbc.gov/library/dm/index.htm Accessed January 30, 2012
Phillips, Ken. Short-haul Helicopter Rescue, Rescue Magazine 6(3): 30-41, May/June
1993, JEMS Communication, Carlsbad, CA.
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Glossary
After-Action Review (AAR)- A formal operational review, conducted in a controlled
setting, to review the best practices and any identified deficiencies associated with an
incident along with possible corrective actions. This process should include personnel
from all involved agencies and can be conducted several days following an incident.
Air Traffic Control (ATC)- A service provided to pilots by ground-based controllers who
direct aircraft on the ground and through controlled airspace, and can provide advisory
services in non-controlled airspace. The primary purpose of ATC is to prevent
collisions, organize and expedite the flow of traffic, and provide information and other
support for pilots.
Autorotation- A rotorcraft flight condition in which the lifting rotor is driven entirely by
the action of the air while the rotorcraft is in motion. No engine power is supplied to the
main rotor, and lift is developed from the free turning of the rotor blades, which are
driven by aerodynamic forces. Rotor inertia is used as the helicopter nears the ground
to control the descent.
Aviation Life Support Equipment (ALSE)- All related survival, protective emergency,
and rescue devices employed to provide personal protection for aviation crewmembers.
This includes, but is not limited to flight helmets, flight suits, harnesses, personal locator
beacons, life vest, etc.
Basic Empty Weight- The starting point for weight computations is the basic empty
weight, which is the weight of the standard helicopter, optional equipment, unusable
fuel, and full operating fluids including full engine oil.
Bingo Fuel- A pre-briefed amount of fuel for an aircraft that would allow a safe return to
the base of intended landing.
CASEVAC (Casualty evacuation)- Military term for the emergency patient evacuation
of casualties from a combat zone. Military call sign “Dustoff.” The difference between a
CASEVAC and a medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) is that a MEDEVAC uses a
standardized and dedicated medical vehicle providing en route care. On the other hand,
CASEVAC uses non-standardized and non-dedicated vehicles that may not be able to
provide enroute care.
Center of Gravity (CG)- The point in a helicopter where all forces are balanced. In a
single-rotor helicopter, this is a range forward or aft beneath the rotor mast. The
distribution of the weight of the fuel, the personnel, and the cargo in the helicopter
affects this critical balance for safe flight.
Clear Text- A spoken communication style that avoids the use of any abbreviated
codes in order to facilitate understanding by all emergency personnel.
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Collective Pitch System- The flight control mechanisms by which the pitch of all rotor
blades is varied equally and simultaneously. The collective pitch control regulates the
pitch angle of the main rotor blades. It is used as the primary power control. As the
pitch of the blades is increased, lift is induced, causing the helicopter to lift off the
ground, hover, or climb, as long as power is available.
Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)- Accident occurring when an airworthy aircraft
under the complete control of the pilot is inadvertently flown into terrain, water, or an
obstacle. The pilots are generally unaware of the danger until it is too late. Many CFIT
accidents occur because of loss of situational awareness.
Crew Engineer (CE) or “Crew Chief”- Flight crewmember who performs maintenance
on the aircraft (military) and performs rescue duties, such as operation of the helicopter
hoist.
Cyclic- The flight control mechanism that permits the helicopter to move forward,
sideways, and backward by corresponding tilting of the rotor disc.
Density Altitude (DA)- The actual pressure altitude corrected for temperature and
humidity, which provides a measure of the air density. The higher the DA, the less lift a
helicopter can achieve. Higher temperatures or higher elevation cause the air to be
less dense, resulting in less lift for the rotor blades.
Dynamic Rollover- Dynamic rollover occurs when some factor causes the helicopter to
roll or pivot around a skid, or landing gear wheel, until its critical rollover angle is
reached. If the critical rollover angle is exceeded, the helicopter rolls on its side
regardless of the cyclic control corrections made. Dynamic rollover may also occur if
the pilot does not use the proper landing or takeoff technique or while performing slope
operations. Dynamic rollover can occur in both skid and wheel equipped helicopters,
and all types of rotor systems.
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Flight Following- The method and process by which an aircraft is tracked from
departure point to destination. Flight following is the knowledge of the aircraft and
condition with a reasonable degree of certainty such that, in the event of mishap, those
on board may be rescued in a timely manner. It is typically accomplished through a
position check on the radio at regular intervals.
Fuel Weight- The weight of the onboard aircraft fuel load. Domestically Jet-A is used
within the U.S. for turbine helicopters, which is 6.8 pounds per (US) gallon. JP-8 is a jet
fuel, which is less flammable and safer for combat survivability, specified and used
widely by the US military. The U.S. Navy uses a similar formula, JP-5.
GAR (Green-Amber-Red) Risk Assessment Model- Assessment tool that surveys the
perceived risk for an activity, and most importantly, facilitates open discussion by
participants. Employing a numerical rating for elements of the activity the total risk score
is characterized as green-go, amber-caution or red-stop. The strength of the model is
found in the group discussion on risk that is generated by the process.
Gross Weight- The sum of the basic empty weight and useful load.
Ground Effect- When a helicopter is in a low hover, the ground interrupts the airflow
under the helicopter, and the velocity of the induced airflow to the rotor system is
reduced. The result is less induced drag and a more vertical lift vector. This ground
cushion, or ground effect, is beneficial in flight because it increases lift capability for the
helicopter, which therefore requires less power to maintain a hover. Ground effect
occurs when the helicopter is at a very low altitude, usually one half the rotor diameter.
Ground effect is hampered by uneven terrain, vegetation, or water beneath the rotor
disc.
Heavy Helicopter- A helicopter with a certified gross weight greater than 12,500
pounds (5,670 kg). Under the ICS helicopter typing system, a heavy helicopter is a
Type 1 helicopter; it must have an allowable payload at 59°F (15°C) at sea level of
5,000 pounds (2,268 kg) and capability of 15 or more passenger seats.
Height-Velocity Curve- A chart in the helicopter flight manual that indicates the
combinations of altitude and forward airspeed required to ensure a safe autorotation.
Helibase- Under the incident command system (ICS), a designated facility for
conducting helicopter operations that has refueling capability. The U.S. Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) term for a permanent helicopter facility is heliport.
Helicopter- A rotorcraft that depends principally on its engine-driven rotors for vertical
and horizontal motion.
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Helispot- A temporary helicopter landing zone (LZ), which may incorporate a natural or
an improved takeoff and landing area.
High Frequency (HF)- The spectrum of radio frequencies in the 3 MHz to 30 MHz
range.
Hot Debrief (Hot Wash)- The immediate review after an emergency response
operation, conducted with involved personnel, to identify operational deficiencies and
planned corrective actions. Conducted immediately at the conclusion of the operational
assignment.
Hover- A condition of flight in which the helicopter remains fairly stationary over a given
point, moving neither vertically nor horizontally.
Hover Ceiling- The highest altitude at which a helicopter can successfully hover while
loaded to its maximum gross weight. In and out of ground effect hover ceilings are
computed at maximum gross weight.
Hover in Ground Effect (HIGE)- To operate at an altitude (usually equal to one half the
rotor diameter above the surface) at which the positive influence of ground effect is
attained.
Hover Landing- A landing that does not meet the definition of toe-in, single-skid, or
step-out landings. Hover landings are characterized by a need to maintain a substantial
amount of hover power while the landing gear is not in contact with the surface. Hover
landings normally are required because of the nature of the surface (e.g., swampy
ground, tundra or muskeg, snow, or lava rock).
Hover Out of Ground Effect (HOGE)- Hovering at a high enough altitude that the
added benefit of ground effect is not obtained.
Human External Cargo (HEC)- Lifting and transport of personnel outside or beneath a
helicopter during flight (e.g. hoist rescue or short-haul)
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Human Factors- A discipline of study that deals with the psychological, social,
physical, biological and safety characteristics of a user and the system they are in, such
as the human-machine interface.
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)- FAA rules governing the operation of aircraft in weather
conditions below the minimum for flight under visual flight rules; that is, conditions
under which instruments are essential for flight navigation.
Knot (kt)- A unit of speed equal to one nautical mile (1.852 km) per hour, approximately
1.15 statute miles per hour.
Landing Zone (LZ)- Any improved or unimproved helicopter landing site that has an
adequate touchdown pad and approach and departure paths. Under ICS, a landing
zone is referred to as a helispot or helibase.
Light Helicopter- A helicopter with a certified gross weight of less than 6,000 pounds
(2,721 kg). Under the ICS helicopter typing system, a light helicopter is a Type 3
helicopter; it must have an allowable payload at 59° F (15º C) at sea level of 1,200
pounds (544 kg) and four to eight passenger seats.
Load Calculation- Calculation of the helicopter's lifting capability for a given altitude
and temperature.
Longline- A line or set of lines, including steel cable or synthetic material, used for
external sling load operations to deliver supplies to a site where a helicopter could not
safely land.
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maximum gross weight, which refers to the weight within the helicopter structure and an
external maximum gross weight, which refers to the weight of the helicopter with an
external load.
MEDEVAC (medical evacuation)- The timely, efficient movement and en route care by
medical personnel of the wounded, injured, and ill persons, from the battlefield and
other locations to treatment facilities. The difference between a CASEVAC (casualty
evacuation) and a MEDEVAC is that a MEDEVAC uses a standardized and dedicated
vehicle providing en route care. On the other hand, a CASEVAC uses non-standardized
and non-dedicated aircraft that may not provide enroute care. Military MEDEVAC
aircraft are mandated by the Geneva Convention to be unarmed and well marked.
Medium Helicopter- A helicopter with a certified gross weight between 6,000 pounds
(2,721 kg) and 12,500 pounds (5,669 kg). Under the ICS helicopter typing system, a
medium helicopter is a Type 2 helicopter; it must have an allowable payload at 59º F
(15º C) at sea level of 2,500 pounds (1,134 kg) and nine to 14 passenger seats (unless
it is in a restricted category).
Military Training Routes (MTR)- Designated aerial corridors in which military aircraft
can operate below 10,000 feet faster than the maximum safe speed of 250 knots that
all other aircraft are restricted to while operating below 10,000 feet. The routes provide
for high-speed, low-level military activities.
One-Skid Landing- The maneuver of placing one skid of the helicopter on the ground,
while the other remains above the ground, typically performed in steep terrain. When
the skid is in contact with the ground, it serves as a pivot point and the CG can shift
laterally.
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Pararescue, aka Pararescue Jumpers (PJ’s)- United States Air Force Special
Operations Command (AFSOC) and Air Combat Command (ACC) personnel tasked
with recovery and medical treatment of personnel, commonly by helicopter or parachute
operations, in humanitarian and combat environments.
Pilot in Command (PIC)- The person who (1) has final authority and responsibility for
the operation and safety of the flight; (2) has been designated as pilot in command
before or during the flight; and (3) holds the appropriate category, class, and type
rating, if appropriate, for the conduct of the flight.
Pilot Flying (PF)- Designated pilot who takes direct responsibility for flying the aircraft
for the complete flight or for particular parts of it such as the Descent/Approach and
Landing. The other pilot is then designated for that sector or relevant parts of it as 'Pilot
Not Flying' (PNF) or 'Pilot Monitoring' (PM), and in that role must monitor the flight
management and aircraft control actions of the PF and carry out support duties such as
communications and check-list reading.
Power-On Landing- A landing maneuver in which both skids are in full contact with the
ground while full power is maintained; this maneuver is performed to maintain the
position of the aircraft on a marginal touchdown pad.
Rescue Coordination Center (RCC)- A primary search and rescue facility staffed by
supervisory personnel and equipped for coordinating and controlling search and rescue
operations. Rescue Coordination Centers (RCCs) in the United States are operated by
the United States Coast Guard and the U.S. Air Force. RCC's are responsible for a
geographic area, known as a "search and rescue region of responsibility" (SRR). SRR's
are designated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and the International
Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO).
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Safety Circle- An obstruction-free area on all sides of the helicopter touchdown pad
that allows a safe approach to and departure from the touchdown pad.
Short-haul- The transport of one or more people externally suspended on a line below
a helicopter. Includes the use of a helicopter and an externally attached line to insert or
extract personnel in areas that preclude a normal landing.
Sling Load- An external load supported by a sling, net, bag, or some combination of
these that is attached with a long-line to the helicopter by means of a cargo hook.
Step-Out Landing- A landing used for dropping off or picking up passengers and cargo
(other than the rappel/short-haul method) while the helicopter is held in a hover. The
helicopter is not in contact with the ground, and the center of gravity can shift laterally
and longitudinally.
Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR)- Airspace restriction to flight imposed in order to: .
1. Protect persons and property from an existing or imminent flight associated hazard
2. Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft
3. Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft above an incident
4. Protect the President, Vice President, or other public figures
5. Provide a safe environment for space agency operations
TFRs are, by definition, “temporary” in nature, and pilots are expected to check
appropriate NOTAMs during flight planning when conducting flight in an area where a
temporary flight restriction is in effect.
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Touchdown Pad- A designated area, which may have a prepared or improved surface,
where the helicopter skids are placed.
Toe-In Landing- A landing maneuver in which the helicopter rests on the toes of the
skids; toe-in landings are used to drop off or pick up passengers or cargo. To execute
the maneuver, a significant amount of hover power (within 15% of hover power) must
be held to keep the helicopter from falling backward. When the helicopter is operated in
this manner, the potential exists for a significant lateral and longitudinal shift in the CG
shift during loading and offloading. In addition, when the helicopter is balanced on the
forward one third or less of the skid tube, main rotor blade clearance is another
significant concern.
Translational Lift- The additional lift generated as the helicopter transitions from a
hover to horizontal flight. Translational lift is due to the increased efficiency of the rotor
system as it generates more lift in forward flight with a higher inflow velocity of air mass
comparison with a hover.
Ultra High Frequency (UHF)- The spectrum of radio frequencies in the 300 MHz to 3
GHz (3,000 MHz).
Useful Load-The difference between the gross weight and the basic empty weight is
referred to as useful load. It includes the flight crew, usable fuel, drainable oil, if
applicable, and payload.
Vertical Reference- A technique used by the helicopter pilot and flight crew, while
operating above the ground, to determine the height of the aircraft and any associated
external load through visual clues. Surface landmarks and references are used during
approaches, departures, and external-load positioning maneuvers at landing or work
areas.
Very High Frequency (VHF)- The spectrum of radio frequencies in the 30 MHz to 300
MHz range. This contains aeronautical frequencies and land mobile radio spectrum.
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Visual Flight Rules (VFR)- The rules for conducting flight operations under visual
meteorological conditions (VMC). Depending upon the class of airspace, aircraft flying
under VFR are not required to be in contact with air traffic controllers and are
responsible for their own separation from other aircraft. The term also is used in the
United States to indicate weather conditions that meet or exceed minimum VFR
requirements.
Weight and Balance- Airframe calculations based upon the amount of cyclic control
power available, which establish both the longitudinal and lateral CG envelopes of a
helicopter so that it is loaded in a manner so there is sufficient cyclic control for all flight
conditions.
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APPENDICES
Appendix A- Checklist For Precision In Emergency Response Safety
This job aid has been developed to promote effective decision making and risk
management during emergency operations. It highlights numerous operational red
flags. Use of this tool should not delay your decision making; rather it should be
consulted as a reference on a recurring basis. Review these principles in advance.
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Appendix B- Communications
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Distress/Emergency Frequencies
406.0 MHz- International voice aeronautical and shipboard emergency (UHF).*
243.0 MHz- Joint/combined military aeronautical emergency (UHF).
123.1 MHz- NATO/ICAO Scene of Action (SAR)
121.5 MHz- International aeronautical emergency distress frequency (VHF)
156.8 MHz- International Maritime Distress (Channel 16)- FM voice distress (VHF)
40.50 MHz- VHF-FM Emergency (U.S. Army FM distress)
8364 kHz- International SAR lifeboat, life raft, and survival craft
2182 kHz- Maritime Mobile Distress
2670 kHz- USCG Emergency Coordination
500 kHz- International Distress
*Emergency ELT, EPIRB, and Personal Location beacon (PLB) distress frequency
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3. Gloves – On
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PART ONE
2. Nightsun Control Box - Position next to cabin door for easy access during hoist
operations.
3. Safety Harness - Ensure safety harness is secured to hard point. Adjust belt to fit
comfortably - adjust length of tether. Ensure proper donning of PFD to include leg
straps (if applicable).
4. Helmet Visor - Visors should be down whenever cabin door is open. (For night
operations, if a clear helmet visor is not available, use safety glasses).
5. ICS Cord - Ensure ICS cord is available. Additionally, the other right side ICS box
should be strapped to the overhead and available for use in the event of failure.
7. Cable Cutters - Cutters should be in close proximity and secured with a lanyard to
prevent dropping from aircraft if employed.
PART TWO
Rescue Checklist Part Two should be completed immediately preceding an actual hoist.
These are the final steps taken in order to perform a hoist.
1. Request Hoist Power/Enable Cable Cutter - Pilot will turn hoist on and reset
cable cutter circuit breaker.
3. Audio Check - Check hot mike and all receiver volumes and settings to avoid
interference during hoist.
4. Report - "Rescue Checklist Part Two complete- one rigged and ready aft."
Following this last advisory, the Pilot will begin his/her approach to the target.
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4. No night operations.
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Crew Chief
The Crew Chief will ensure that the aircraft is properly configured for SAR missions to
include confirming the rappel bar is securely attached to the aircraft, and that the “load
release handle” is locked and safety pinned in position
Crew Chief will perform a safety inspection of all crewmembers ensuring proper PPE for
the mission
Crew Chief will complete pre-rescue safety inspection of the Helicopter Rescue
Specialist (HRS)
CABIN SECURED
Prior to calling cabin secure the Crew Chief will ensure that the HRS and all equipment
are properly secured
LIGHT CHECK OK
RESCUER READY
Crew Chief will boom HRS into ready position but will not lower HRS until Pilot gives the
command
RESCUER IN POSITION
HOIST RUNNING
Crew Chief will provide Pilot with progress of HRS on hoist (e.g. HRS at 15 feet, 30 feet
etc.)
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CHECKED
Crew Chief will then begin to give Pilot corrective commands to the target LZ
DECISION CHECKED
Crew Chief will make final movement commands as the HRS nears the ground
RESCUER ON GROUND
RESCUER DISCONNECTING
HOOK FREE
HOIST RUNNING
AXIS CLEAR
Crew Chief will provide commentary on progress of the hoist hook as it is retrieved and
call clear when the hook can be retrieved without striking any obstacles
DECISION CHECKED
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Appendix D- Airspace
AIRSPACE CLASSES
The National Airspace System (NAS) is divided into several standardized types, ranging
from A through G — with A being the most restrictive and G the least restrictive.
• Class A: High altitude controlled airspace at 18,000-60,000 feet. All aircraft are
subject to ATC clearance. All flights are separated from each other by air traffic
control (ATC).
• Class B: Surface to typically 10,000 feet around major airports to control traffic flow.
All aircraft are subject to ATC clearance.
• Class C: Used around airports with a moderate traffic flow. All aircraft are required
to have two-way radio communications with the ATC facility serving the airport.
• Class D: Used around smaller airports with a tower. All flights have radio contact
with ATC.
• Class E: Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. Aircraft operating
under IFR and SVFR are separated from each other, and are subject to ATC
clearance. Flights under VFR are not subject to ATC clearance. As far as is
practical, traffic information is given to all flights in respect of VFR flights.
• Class G: Uncontrolled airspace found near the ground and outside of controlled
airspace regions typically in remote areas. Operations may be conducted under IFR
or VFR. ATC separation is not provided.
1. PA—Prohibited Areas
2. RA— Restricted Areas
3. MOA—Military Operations Areas
4. AA —Alert Areas
5. WA —Warning Areas
6. CFA —Controlled Firing Areas
Prohibited Areas
A great description of a Prohibited Area (PA) is “unless you have the President flying in
the right seat with you, don’t attempt to fly through a prohibited area”. According to the
Airman’s Information Manual they are established for “security or other reasons
associated with the national welfare”. PAs keep aircraft from flying over the White
House and other parts of Washington, DC, ex-president’s homes. One interesting PA is
the Boundary Waters Canoe Area in Minnesota. PAs are published in the Federal
Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts.
Restricted Areas
A Restricted Area (RA) is designated when it is necessary to confine or segregate
activities considered hazardous to non-participating aircraft. They may contain hazards
to flying such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. You do not want to fly
in restricted areas without permission from the using or controlling agency. Such flying
could be hazardous to you and your aircraft’s health and well-being. If you find yourself
requested to fly within restricted areas, make sure you have permission and clearance
prior to entry. RAs are depicted on the En Route Chart and aeronautical charts.
Alert Areas
An Alert Areas (AA) may contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of
aerial activity. A high volume of activity is considered as 250,000 operations a year
(such as the Gulf Coast off shore operations). It is an airspace where you should be
particularly “alert” when flying. All activities are conducted in accordance with FAR’s. It
might be an area for military activity, aircraft manufacturers or a high concentration of
aviation activity, i.e. helicopters operating near oil rigs. AAs are depicted on
aeronautical charts.
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Warning Areas
A Warning Area (WA) could contain the same kind of hazardous flight activity as a RA,
however, they are located over international waters. This means artillery firing, aerial
gunnery, or guided missiles. The reason it is called a WA (instead of a RA) is because it
is located over International waters. Until recently, International waters started at three
miles from the U.S. coastline. However, the FAA recently extended airspace authority to
12 miles and made ALL AIRSPACE between three and 12 miles a WA. You can fly
VFR through a WA and chance it. If you choose to fly IFR, ATC will not permit it unless
separation is guaranteed. WAs are depicted on aeronautical charts.
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Note: This list provides a reference to the principal rescue helicopters operated by the
Department of Defense and Department of Homeland Security. This is not a list of all
operational rescue helicopters in the U.S.
Performance
• Cruise speed: 140 kt (160 mph, 260 km/h)
• Range: 700 nautical miles (802 mi, 1,300 km)
• Service ceiling: 5,000 ft. hovering (1,520 m)
Performance
• Cruise speed: 150 kt (173 mph, 278 km/h)
• Combat radius: 368 mi (320 nmi, 592 km)
• Ferry range: 1,380 mi (1,200 nmi, 2,220 km) with external tanks
• Service ceiling: 19,000 ft. (5,790 m)
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Performance
Maximum speed: 195 knots (224 mph, 360 km/h)
Cruise speed: 159 kt (184 mph, 294 km/h)
Range: 373 mi (internal fuel), or 508 mi (with external tanks) (600 km, or 818 km)
Service ceiling: 14,000 ft. (4,267 m)
Performance
• Maximum speed: 146 kt (270 km/h; 168 mph)
• Range: 450 nmi (518 mi or 834 km) at cruise speed
• Service ceiling: 12,000 ft. (3,580 m)
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Performance
• Cruise speed: 130 kt (149 mph, 240 km/h)
• Range: 400 nmi (450 mi, 741 km)
• Service ceiling: 18,500 ft. (5,640 m)
Performance
• Cruise speed: 133 knots (153 mph, 246 km/h)
• Range: 370 nmi (426 mi, 685 km)
• Service ceiling: 18,000 ft. (5,791 m)
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Performance
• Maximum speed: 324 km/h; 201 mph (175 kt.)
• Range: 658 km (409 mi; 355 nmi)
• Service ceiling: 5,486 m (17,999 ft.)
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A minimum of two rotor diameters is required for single-ship training. Use the following
square dimensions to determine single-ship HLZs: MH-53 = 150 ft. (72 ft. rotor
diameter); UH-1 = 100 ft. (48 ft. rotor diameter); CV-22=170 ft. (85 ft. rotor diameter);
HH-60 = 110 ft. (54 ft. rotor diameter).
HH-60 slope limits: 6 degrees nose-down, 15 degrees nose-up, 15 degrees left/ right.
Aircrew will subtract 2 degrees from each limit for each 5 knots of wind
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Source: Army, Marine Corps, Navy, and Air Force JFIRE (Multi-
Service Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for the Joint
Application of Firepower). Appendix H. November 2012
Zone Location
• Geographical feature, checkpoint, grid, road intersection, etc.
Marked by
• Air panel, buzzsaw (spinning chemlight on cord), chemical lights, infrared strobes,
smoke, talk-on, etc.
Obstacles
• Power lines, trees, etc.
• Include height of obstacle
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